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NORTH  CAROLINA  STATE  U  WVERSITV  LIBRARIES 


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FRENCH    FORESTS 

AND 

FORESTRY 

TUNISIA,  ALGERIA,  CORSICA 

Wi^k  a   Translation  of  the  Algerian  Code  of  i(^oj 


THEODORE    S.    WOOLSEY,   Jr.,    M.F. 

Assistant  District  Forester,  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  igoS-igij 
Lecturer,  1912,  igid-igiy,  Yale  Forest  School. 


FIRST   EDITION 


NEW  YORK 

JOHN    WILEY    &    SONS,    Inc. 

London:   CHAPMAN   &   HALL,    Limited 

I917 


Copyright,  1917, 

BY 

THEODORE   S.   WOOLSEY,  JR. 


Stanhope  flSrcsa 

T.     H.  GILSON    COMPAN-P 
BOSTON,  U.S.A. 


To 
i^prnliarli  S.  Jprttom.  I^fttry  0>.  (Sraurs.  (Stffiarli  ftttrlint 

In   Recognition   of  their   Creation  and  Development 

OF  A  Definite  and  Comprehensive   National 

Forest  Policy 


PREFACE 


A  KNOWLEDGE  of  theoretical  forestry  is  as  indispensable  to 
I  American  forest  student  as  it  is  to  the  man  of  any  other 
luntry  who  may  adopt  forestry  as  his  profession.  But  to  be 
,eful  such  knowledge  must  be  applied  with  judgment.  The 
ire  theory  of  forestry  needs  for  its  unfolding  and  embodiment 
editions  which  are  likewise  theoretically  perfect.     The  skill 

the  trained  forester  consists  not  in  the  mere  apphcation  of  a 
rmula,   but  in  mochfying  what  is  ideally  correct  into  what 

practically  desirable.  As  in  every  other  sphere  of  human 
ideavor,  what  is  actually  possible  in  the  practice  of  forestry 
fifers  very  widely  from  what  ought  to  be  possible,  but  is  not. 
iccessful  practice,  in  the  large,  is  never  theoretically  perfect, 
id  this  is  most  emphatically  true  in  the  lands  where  forestry 

new. 

American  foresters  have  very  much  to  learn  from  the  in- 
nsive  methods  of  forest  management  and  forest  production 
I  the  Continent  of  Europe,  and  particularly  in  France,  Ger- 
any,  Austria,  and  Switzerland.  Here  the  fundamental  prin- 
Dles  of  theoretical  forestry  may  best  be  studied,  and  the  best 
amples  of  their  application  to  conditions  on  the  ground  are 
ost  readily  examined. 

In  his  effort  to  ascertain  how  best  to  harmonize  the  search 
r  perfection  with  the  successful  achievement  of  practical 
suits,  there  is  no  guide  so  valuable  to  the  forester  as  the  ex- 
rience  of  others  under  conditions  which  are  at  least  partially 
nilar.  But  the  experience  of  others  can  serve  us  as  a  model 
ily  when  the  work  done  rests  on  knowledge  so  pertinent  and 
ill  so  sure  that  their  combined  effect  results  in  elasticity  and 
(Idness  in  fitting  means  to  ends;  otherwise  the  lessons  to  be 


Vi  PREFACE 

learned  will  flow  less  from  examples  to  be  followed  than  from 
mistakes  to  be  shunned. 

Here  lies  the  special  value  of  French  forest  management  as 
against  German.  The  reason  why  more  valuable  instruction 
and  more  useful  example  for  the  American  forester  is  to  be 
found  in  France  than  in  Germany  is  because  French  methods 
are  less  rigid,  more  adaptable,  less  controlled  by  arbitrary  rule 
than  is  the  case  in  Germany.  French  forest  management  is  the 
natural  expression  of  the  quick  and  practical  intelligence  of 
the  French,  and  this  is  especially  true  in  its  apphcation  to  the 
French  colonies,  where  many  of  the  conditions  approximate 
those  with  which  American  foresters  find  themselves  obliged 
to  deal. 

As  a  former  student  of  the  French  Forest  School  at  Nancy, 
it  is  a  matter  of  special  satisfaction  to  me  that  Theodore  S. 
Woolsey,  Jr.,  my  friend  and  fellow  member  of  the  United  States 
Forest  Service,  has  undertaken  to  give  Americans  an  account 
of  forest  management  by  France. 

Mr.  Woolsey's  equipment  for  his  task  is  unusually  complete. 
His  knowledge  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  forestry  in  the 
United  States  is  such  as  could  result  only  from  thorough  train- 
ing followed  by  wide  experience  in  the  field.  Through  his 
work  in  the  Forest  Service  he  has  seen  the  worst  and  the  best 
of  American  methods  of  forestry,  and  how  these  work  out  under 
the  stress  of  practical,  silvicultural,  financial,  and  administra- 
tive conditions. 

His  experience  abroad  includes  not  only  Continental  Europe 
and  the  French  Dependencies,  which  latter  are  described  in 
this  book,  but  also  forest  management  in  British  India  as  well. 
What  has  everywhere  drawn  and  held  his  interest  is  the  analogy 
or  the  contrast  with  forest  work  at  home.  The  present  book 
owes  no  small  part  of  its  value  to  that  fact.  Thus  in  Tunisia, 
Mr.  Woolsey  tells  us,  one  of  the  recognized  methods  of  pro- 
tection against  forest  fires  is  to  promote  the  settlement  and 
occupation  of  agricultural  lands  within  forest  boundaries.  So 
the  U.  S.  Forest  Service  has  done  its  utmost  to  encourage  a 
resident  population  on   cultivable   lands   within   the   National 


PREFACE  Vii 

Forests,  a  population  personally  interested  in  preventing  and 
extinguishing  fires. 

In  Corsica  the  lack  of  sufficient  means  of  transportation 
has  made  it  necessary  to  sell  timber  in  amounts  large  enough, 
and  extending  over  a  number  of  years  great  enough,  to  justify 
the  purchaser  in  building  the  indispensable  wagon  roads  for 
himself.  Defective  transportation  and  low  prices  of  timber  are 
often  controlHng  factors  with  French  Colonial  foresters,  as  they 
are  with  us. 

In  Algeria  the  simplicity,  economy,  and  efficiency  of  forest 
administration  has  pecuhar  interest  for  us,  while  the  report  of 
an  official  commission,  which  recognized  the  maintenance  of 
brush  cover  as  of  vital  importance,  carries  the  thought  of  an 
American  forester  at  once  to  the  brush  covered  National  Forests 
which  are  so  potent  in  protecting  the  water  supply  of  southern 
CaUfornia. 

It  is  not  without  real  satisfaction  that  we  find  ourselves, 
through  Mr.  Woolsey's  studies,  able  to  realize  that  here  and 
there  we  Americans  have  surpassed  in  practice  the  men  whose 
example  means  so  much  to  us.  Thus  in  Corsica  trespass  upon 
forest  land  still  offers  one  of  the  most  serious  problems  of 
forest  administration,  whereas  upon  our  National  Forests  of 
the  West,  as  Mr.  Woolsey  well  points  out,  trespass  is  practically 
a  thing  of  the  past.  Our  methods  of  grazing  control,  it  is  pleasant 
also  to  know,  lose  nothing  by  comparison  with  those  of  the 
French  in  northern  Africa. 

I  have  often  had  occasion  to  advise  American  forest  students 
to  make  themselves  familiar  with  the  practice  of  forestry  in 
France  and  Germany  and  then  to  forget  it.  It  is  only  when 
such  knowledge  passes,  as  someone  has  said,  out  of  memory 
into  experience,  that  it  becomes  really  valuable.  Such  a  book 
as  this  almost  leads  me  to  revise  that  statement,  for  it  gives  us 
not  merely  the  facts  of  forest  practice,  but  the  reasons  which 
underlie  that  practice,  and  the  discussion  and  appUcation  of  it 
referred  to  the  forest  conditions  and  problems  in  our  own  land. 
Forest  pioneers,  like  the  men  whose  work  this  volume  describes, 
have  much  in  common  wherever  their  work  may  lie,  while  the 


Vlll  PREFACE 


methods  devised  and  practiced  in  France  itself  probably  cover 
a  wider  range  of  conditions  and  apply  more  closely  to  the  needs 
and  the  problems  of  the  American  forester  than  those  of  any 
other  country  of  Europe. 

GlFFORD   PiNCHOT. 

August  ij,  igi6. 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Preface v 

Introduction xiii 

CHAPTER  I 

Conclusions  and  Summary i 

Value  of  Extensive  Forestry i 

Tunisia 2 

Algeria 4 

Corsica 8 

CHAPTER    II 

Tunisia 10 

Introduction 10 

Forest  Conditions 14 

Administrative  Organization  and  Legislation 18 

Forest  Management 23 

Protection  against  Fires  and  Moving  Sand 26 

Forestation  and  Betterments 41 

CHAPTER   III 

Algeria 46 

Physical  and  Climatic  Features 46 

Progress  in  Forest  Administration 49 

Forest  Conditions 54 

Forest  Management 58 

Working  Plans 66 

Disposal  of  Produce 72 

The  Forestation  Problem 77 

Miscellaneous  Activities 87 

Fire  Protection  and  Control g^ 

Administrative  Organization loi 

Forest  Legislation 109 

CHAPTER   IV 

Corsica in 

Introduction in 

Forest  Conditions 115 

Administrative  Organization  and  Finances 123 


X  CONTENTS 

Paoe 

Working  Plans  and  Cultural  Methods 1 28 

Forest  Regulation  and  Yield 137 

Sales  Methods  and  Contracts  —  Turpentine  Leases 140 

Other  Forest  Activities 155 

APPENDIX 

The  Algerian  Forest  Code 161 

Miscellaneous: 

Statistics  of  Federal  Forests  in  Corsica  under  Provisional  or  Regular 

Working  Plans  or  Cutting  Regulations 209 

Sales  Clauses,  Forest  of  Asco,  Corsica , 214 

Additional  Literature 22 1 

Equivalents , 221 

Index 223 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Fig.  Page 

1.  The  forester's  ideal  —  wooded  slopes,  pastures,  agriculture  land,  and 

interior  villages Frontispiece 

2.  Map  of  Tunisia  and  Algeria 1 1 

3.  French  ranger  and  Arab  forest  assistants  at  ranger  station  in  Tunisia ....  19 

4.  The  Djebel  ranger  station  in  southern  Tunisia.     Built  on  the  site  of  an 

old  Roman  military  camp 20 

-,.   The  result  of  fire  in  an  aleppo-pine  forest  in  southern  Tunisia.     Near  the 

Djebel  Mansaur  ranger  station 26 

6.  A  recently  cleared  fire  line  in  cork  oak 28 

7.  TjTjical  sand  wall  topped  with  date  palm  branches  in  use  at  Tozeur, 

southern  Tunisia 2>3> 

8.  Method  of  protection  against  erosion  at  El-Hamma 38 

9.  Protection  against  erosion  above  springs  at  El-Hamma 39 

10.  Ranger's  house,  Feidja,  Tunisia 44 

11.  The  transport  of  cork  to  a  local  depot  in  the  mountains  near  Philippeville, 

Algeria 59 

12.  Virgin  zeen-oak  forest  in  Algeria,  Constantine  conservation 65 

13.  Bird's-eye  view  of  an  important  plantation  near  Orleansville,  Algeria.  .  .  85 

14.  Near  view  of  Orleansville  plantation  illustrating  wide  spacing  used  in  the 

contour  furrow  method  of  planting 85 

15.  Cork  oak  after  the  cork  has  been  removed,  on  a  ridge  fire  line  in  Algeria, 

Constantine  conservation 94 

16.  The  "maquis"  or  brush  of  the  lower  slopes  of  Corsica  resembles  the 

chaparral  of  southern  California 114 

17.  Forests  managed  by  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service  in  Corsica 116 

18.  A  ranger  station  and  stand  of  Corsican  pine  in  the  Forest  of  Aitone,  Corsica  1 1 7 

19.  Beech  forest  of  poor  quality  near  Vizzavona,  Corsica 120 

20.  A  heavy  selection  cutting  in  the  Forest  of  Aitone 131 


INTRODUCTION 


The  following  work  embodies  the  results  of  a  study  of  the 
more  important  phases  of  forest  practice  in  Corsica,  Algeria, 
and  Tunisia.  There  has  been  attempted  neither  a  complete 
investigation  of  forestry  in  all  its  phases  nor  a  summary  of  all 
the  multitudinous  details  of  administration.  The  aim  has 
been  rather  to  set  forth  the  essentials  of  method  which  may 
be  appHed  directly  in  the  United  States,  or  which  may  be  in- 
directly of  value  to  English  speaking  foresters. 

Germany  and  Austria  are  quite  generally  recognized,  at 
the  present  time,  as  leaders  in  forest  technique.  But  from  the 
fact  that  at  least  ninety  per  cent  of  forests  under  French  ad- 
ministration are  regenerated  naturally,  it  follows  that  the  re- 
sults of  French  forest  theory  and  administration,  with  Africa 
and  Corsica,  cannot  fail  to  be  of  patent  and  wide  interest  to 
the  forestry  profession. 

The  fixation  of  shifting  sand  dunes  and  their  reclamation  in 
the  Gironde  and  Landes,  by  the  sowing  of  maritime  pine;  the 
various  methods  of  turpentine  collection;  the  control  of  torrents 
and  reboisement  in  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees;  the  management  of 
cork  oak  and  the  construction  of  fire  lines  in  Algeria  —  these 
are  only  a  few  of  the  special  problems  which  have  been  solved 
by  French  foresters  with  an  ingenuity  that  merits  our  admira- 
tion as  surely  as  their  success  commands  our  attention  and 
suggests  a  thorough  and  close  study  of  their  methods.  Con- 
sequently the  extensive  administration  in  some  of  France's  over- 
sea possessions  should  prove  of  interest. 

The  information  presented  herein  helps  to  attract  attention 
to  the  increasingly  frequent  possibility  of  using,  so  to  speak, 
natural  rather  than  artificial  means  of  putting  our  forest  re- 
sources to  the  highest  use.     If  the  evolution  of  forestry  in  the 


xiv  INTRODUCTION 

United  States  during  the  next  few  years  will  have  been  influ- 
enced, though  ever  so  slightly,  by  the  facts  here  gathered,  the 
writer  will  feel  that  his  work  was  not  ia  vain. 

Generalizations  and  comparisons  between  French  and  Amer- 
ican methods  have  been  largely  omitted;  the  idea  has  been, 
instead,  to  describe  the  methods  used  and  the  results.  It  will 
be  possible  for  the  professional  forester  to  make  use  of  these 
methods  in  his  own  work  after  carefully  weighing  and  compar- 
ing the  difference  in  local  conditions.  Much  the  same  method 
of  presenting  the  results  of  research  experiments  has  been  fol- 
lowed by  the  Forest  Service  where  the  results  are  published 
in  order  to  influence  and  guide  but  not  dictate  future  practice. 
The  specialist  later  on  in  our  forest  history  can  weigh  the  re- 
sults obtained  in  Africa  and  Corsica  with  those  obtained  in  the 
United  States  and  draw  deductions.  Before  many  decades  the 
writer  believes  that  America's  forest  practice  will  become  pre- 
eminent; because  of  our  varied  forest  conditions,  wealth  of 
species,  and  strong  personnel  unfettered  by  the  narrow  prece- 
dents of  continental  forest  practice,  we  shall  lead  rather  than 
follow  other  nations.  But  in  the  meantime  should  we  not 
profit  by  the  mistakes  and  successes  of  others?  Our  adminis- 
trator or  investigator  should  not  waste  time  by  duplicating 
these  errors.  The  difference  between  the  textbook  and  field 
methods  (even  on  the  Continent)  are  often  very  marked. 
For  example  if  the  shelterwood  system  of  cutting  has  been 
found  disastrous  in  pure  conifer  stands,  where  the  fire  risk 
was  great,  should  we  not  profit  by  this  experience  even  if  such 
a  system  is  recommended  in  the  standard  textbooks?  Such  a 
lesson  is  taught  by  the  results  in  Corsica.  Here  the  lesson  is 
clear-cut  and  definite;  the  philosophy  of  deduction  is  unnec- 
essary —  it  can  be  grasped  and  made  use  of  by  the  practitioner. 
Even  where  the  inference  is  less  definite  the  idea  and  thought 
of  the  results  obtained  is  of  inestimable  value. 

When  Parade,  former  director  of  the  Nancy  Forest  School, 
described  the  aim  of  the  forester  in  the  fundamental  maxim  of 
silviculture,  "  Imiter  la  nature,  hater  son  ceuvre,  telle  est  la 
maxime  fundamental  de  la  sylviculture,"  he  described,  I  be- 


INTRODUCTION  XV 

lieve,  the  goal  toward  which  American  forestry  should  and 
will  progress. 

My  thanks  are  due  to  the  officials  of  the  Service  des  Eaux  et 
Forets,  who  have  shown  me  without  exception  the  utmost 
courtesy  and  consideration.  Conservateur  de  Lapasse,  formerly 
in  charge  of  the  Thirtieth  Conservation,  in  collaboration  with 
Henry  Dundas,  English  consul  at  AJaccio,  kindly  reviewed  the 
chapter  on  Corsica.  Inspecteur  Boutilly,  chief  of  Forestation 
and  Management  Plans  for  Algeria,  was  reviewing  the  chapters 
on  Algeria  and  Tunisia  when  the  great  war  put  a  stop  to  his 
Hterary  work.  Raphael  Zon,  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  made  many 
valuable  suggestions  after  a  painstaking  review  of  the  manu- 
script. 

I  am  also  indebted  to  W.  P.  Lawson,  who  edited  the  manu- 
script and  put  it  in  shape  for  pubhcation,  and  to  many  others 
for  helpful  suggestions.  Both  the  metric  and  American  systems 
of  measurement  have  been  used  so  as  not  to  detract  from  the 
scientific  value  of  the  figures  quoted.  In  giving  equivalents  oi 
metric  units,  the  nearest  approximate  value  in  the  American 
system  has  been  used.  Thus  "lo  feet"  is  more  easily  grasped 
than  "  118.08  inches"  or  "9.8425  feet,"  although  each  is  an 
equivalent  of  three  metres. 

The  utmost  care  has  been  taken  to  secure  accuracy  of  detail 
and  to  acknowledge  in  footnotes  the  sources  of  important  data 
and  conclusions.  If  errors  have,  however,  crept  in,  suggestions 
for  corrections  and  changes  will  be  gratefully  received  and 
promptly  acknowledged. 

It  has  been  thought  best  to  group  forestry  in  Corsica,  Algeria, 
Tunisia,  and  the  Algerian  Forest  Code  in  one  volume.  This  is 
the  more  desirable,  inasmuch  as  the  matter  treated  may  properly 
come  under  the  head  of  material  illustrative  of  extensive  forest 
methods,  while  the  remaining  material,  descriptive  of  methods 
employed  in  forests  in  France  proper,  will  take  up  the  intensive 
forestry  in  use  there  and  be  published  later  as  a  separate  work. 

T.  S.  W.,  Jr. 


FRENCH  FORESTS  AND  FORESTRY 


CHAPTER  I 
CONCLUSIONS  AND   SUMMARY 

Value  of  Extensive  Forestry  (p.  i). 
Tunisia  (p.  2). 
Algeria  (p.  4). 
Corsica  (p.  8). 

VALUE  OF  EXTENSIVE  FORESTRY 

Forest  students  can  secure  more  information  of  direct  appli- 
cation to  American  conditions  in  countries  where  forestry  is  not 
intensively  organized.  There  is  more  of  value  to  the  adminis- 
trator in  North  Africa  and  Corsica  than  in  France  proper;  and 
more  of  value  in  France  than  in  Germany.  The  reason  must  be 
clear.  The  theory  of  forestry  is  now  estabhshed  solidly  enough 
to  enable  the  elucidation  of  its  general  principles  which  hold 
under  ordinary  conditions.  In  a  trip  through  France  one  sees 
forest  administration  under  the  average  conditions.  What  is 
difficult  to  understand  are  the  exceptions  to  these  general  rules, 
whether  made  necessary  by  market,  climate,  species,  or  cost  of 
administration.  Such  modifications  from  general  forest  usage 
are  admirably  illustrated  in  extensive  French  forestry.  In  France 
proper  intensive  methods  have  been  systematized  for  more  than 
a  century,  and  radical  changes  are  seldom  necessary.  In  North 
Africa  poor  transportation  and  low  prices  force  the  omission  of 
many  silvical  measures  that  may  be  possible  in  France,  and 
necessitate  many  radical  variations  of  absorbing  interest. 

The  extensiveness  of  administration  is  in  the  order  of  conquest, 
Tunisia,  a  French  protectorate  only  since  1881  (recognized  by 
the  English  in    1883),   is  less   extensively  administered   than 


2  CONCLUSIONS   AND   SUMMARY 

Algeria,  which  was  pacified  as  early  as  1858.  Corsica  is,  to  be 
sure,  a  French  department,  ceded  to  France  in  1759,  but,  on 
account  of  the  difiiculty  of  lumbering  in  Corsican  pine  forests 
in  the  rugged  mountains,  the  management  is  perforce  far  less 
intensive  than  in  the  Jura,  Vosges,  or  any  part  of  France.  A 
possible  exception  is  found  in  the  extensive  cuttings  in  the 
southern  Pyrenees  near  Oloron.  Tunisia  comprises  approxi- 
mately 50,000  square  miles;  Algeria,  176,000;  and  Corsica, 
3400.  The  administrative  centers  are:  Tunisia,  Tunis  (near  site 
of  Carthage);  Algeria,  Algiers,  with  Oran  and  Constantine  as 
secondary  centers;  Corsica,  Ajaccio. 


There  is  much  to  learn  in  Tunisia  along  the  lines  of  extensive 
organization;  permanent  improvements;  forestation;  protec- 
tion against  sand,  wind,  and  chmate;  fire  protection,  particu- 
larly as  relating  to  fire  lines;  and  modifications  of  the  customary 
cutting  systems  made  necessary  by  lack  of  transportation  and 
low  stumpage  prices. 

In  Tunisia  there  are  two  t}T3es  of  administration  —  an  inten- 
sive form  for  the  valuable  cork-oak  forests,  and  a  cheaper,  less 
intensive  form  for  the  aleppo  pine  {P.  halepensis)  forests,  valu- 
able chiefly  for  protection  against  erosion  and  wind  or  for  a 
local  fuel  supply.  The  organization  is  not  top-heavy;  it  is  simple 
and  aims  at  the  fundamentals  of  forestry  rather  than  at  the 
minutia  covered  so  thoroughly  on  the  Continent.  It  naturally 
follows  that  the  expenditures  for  fire  protection  are  immeas- 
urably more  for  the  cork-oak  forests  than  for  the  less  valuable 
aleppo  pine. 

The  protection  of  the  Djerid  oases  is  of  particular  interest  to 
American  foresters,  since  the  theory  and  practice  has  a  direct 
application  in  the  United  States.  These  oases  are  valuable 
irrigated  farms  that  must  be  protected  against  drifting  sand, 
over-grazing,  and  erosion.  On  account  of  the  native  population, 
the  laws  in  regard  to  the  use  of  fire  within  or  near  forests  are 
especially  strict,  but   the  administration  realizes  that  interior 


TUNISIA  3 

settlements  are  of  protective  value  since  cultivated  land  forms 
admirable  fire  lines.  Settlers  living  within  forest  boundaries  are 
an  asset  when  lire  must  be  controlled.  There  can  be  no  grazing 
on  a  forest  for  six  years  after  a  lire,  and  railroad  rights-of-way 
must  be  cleared  of  inflammable  debris  and,  if  necessary,  addi- 
tional fire  lines  constructed  parallel  to  the  track.  There  can  be 
no  deforestation  in  reserved  forests,  unless  the  wood  is  cut  for 
use  in  protection  against  erosion,  for  the  improvement  of  springs, 
or  to  stop  drifting  sand.  The  grazing  control  methods,  al- 
though of  wide  interest,  are  comparatively  undeveloped  as  com- 
pared with  the  United  States. 

Quite  a  feature  of  the  cork -oak  management  is  the  simphcity 
of  regulation.  It  is  very  much  as  if  the  forester  were  managing 
a  valuable  crop  of  fruit  trees  which  matured  periodically.  The 
approximate  equal  annual  cut  is  secured  by  working  about  the 
same  area  each  year,  but  the  same  cork-oak  forest  is  only  worked 
for  bark  once  in  three  years.  A  most  important  lesson  to  be 
gathered  from  a  study  of  forestry  in  an  arid  country  is  the  diffi- 
culty of  restocking  after  the  original  forest  has  been  destroyed, 
a  principle  which  must  apply  with  equal  force  in  our  Southwest. 
This  is  to  be  expected,  since  the  period  of  drought  occurs  during 
the  summer  months  when  the  plants  are  less  able  to  withstand 
lack  of  moisture  than  during  the  cooler  weather.  The  methods 
of  forestation,  moreover,  have  an  excellent  application  in  southern 
California  where  the  winter  rains  correspond  so  closely  to  those 
in  Tunisia.  On  the  more  favorable  situations,  the  seed-spot 
method  of  sowing  is  preferred;  on  the  more  difficult  sites,  ball 
planting  must  be  resorted  to,  notwithstanding  the  additional 
expense.  In  order  to  reduce  the  cost  of  forestation,  spacing  as 
wide  as  six  by  eight  feet  is  officially  allowed,  but,  in  practice, 
there  are  rarely  more  than  250  seed  spots  per  acre.  Sowing  or 
planting  just  before  or  during  the  winter  rains  is  the  invariable 
practice.  Thus  far  the  scale  of  operations  has  been  so  small 
that  forestation  in  Tunisia  may  still  be  considered  as  experi- 
mental in  character. 

The  accomplishment  in  Tunisia  since  1885  has  been  consider- 
able, considering  the  small  appropriations  which  are  available. 


4  CONCLUSIONS   AND   SUMMARY 

The  administration  is  essentially  simple,  economical,  and  prac- 
tical; the  budget  is  based  upon  the  revenue  rather  than  upon 
an  ideal. 

ALGERIA 

Much  the  same  climatic  and  topographic  conditions  found  in 
Tunisia  are  characteristic  of  Algeria.  Perhaps  the  most  re- 
markable features  of  the  forest  administration  are:  The  un- 
fortunate sales  of  federal  cork-oak  forests  by  Napoleon;  the 
difficulty  of  preventing  trespass  and  theft;  fire  protection  (al- 
though it  cannot  be  said  to  be  uniformly  successful) ;  foresta- 
tion;  and  the  Algerian  Code. 

Unquestionably,  the  progress  made  in  Algerian  forestry  from 
1900  on  is  due  to  the  forest  commission  that  made  a  careful 
study  of  conditions  and  suggested  very  radical  improvements 
both  in  methods  of  administration  and  in  laws.  The  results  of 
this  study  are  found  in  the  Algerian  Code  of  1903,  which  has 
been  translated  (Appendix,  p.  161).  It  is  very  significant 
that  this  commission  felt  the  preservation  of  existing  forests 
and  brush  cover  of  vital  importance  to  the  health,  prosperity, 
and  habitabihty  of  Algeria.  The  difficulties  met  with  in  the 
early  administration  are  undoubtedly  characteristic  of  all  early 
forest  administration:  the  inclusion  of  needless  agricultural  land 
within  forest  boundaries;  failure  to  properly  consider  and  edu- 
cate local  sentiment  favorable  to  conservative  forest  control; 
a  literal  rather  than  practical  enforcement  of  early  laws,  which 
in  many  cases  are  often  ill-adapted  to  administrative  enforce- 
ment. Administrative  organization  must  always  depend  on 
practicability  rather  than  on  theory.  This  is  well  illustrated 
in  Algeria  by  the  departure  from  this  standard  organization 
common  in  France.  In  France  the  conservator  is  in  charge  of 
a  conservation  which  is  split  up  into  forests  under  inspectors  or 
assistant  inspectors.  In  Algeria  this  organization  would  have 
been  too  expensive  and  it  would  not  have  provided  suitable 
positions  for  men  of  relatively  low  rank  who  were  sufficiently 
advanced,  however,  to  care  for  the  simple  administrative  needs 
found  in  extensive  forest  management.     Accordingly,  the  present 


ALGERIA  5 

conservator  directly  supervises  "  chefferies,"  or  small  forest  sub- 
divisions, which  correspond  closely  to  one  of  the  detached  units 
administered  by  American  forest  supervisors.  A  specific  exam- 
ple is  the  Coronado  National  Forest  in  southern  Arizona, 
where  one  supervisor  has  administered  what  was  formerly  the 
Baboquivari,  Dragoon,  Huachuca,  Santa  Catalina,  Santa  Rita, 
and  Tumacacori  forests.  According  to  the  Algerian  form  of 
organization,  these  different  forest  divisions  would  be  split  up 
and  administered  locally  by  a  forest  assistant,  head  ranger,  or 
deputy  supervisor,  instead  of  being  administered  from  Tucson 
as  one  unit.  Another  interesting  variation  in  the  usual  form 
of  organization  is  the  appointment  of  controllers  or  general 
inspectors  in  each  of  the  three  conservations  (at  Oran,  Constan- 
tine,  and  Algiers).  Such  an  officer  inspects  officials  of  less  than 
his  own  rank.  Since  the  mihtary  form  of  organization  is  cur- 
rent, it  means  that  the  general  inspectors  who,  in  the  regular 
organization  have  the  title  and  rank  of  "  inspecteur,"  cannot 
inspect  a  "  chefferie "  if  it  is  in  charge  of  an  "inspecteur" 
except  in  cases  of  emergency.  It  is  interesting  to  see  that  the 
difficult  lot  of  the  Algerian  forest  officer  is  in  part  compensated  by 
increased  pay  and  liberal  travel  and  educational  allowances;  he 
is  granted  a  maximum  of  30  days'  leave  per  year,  cumulative  up 
to  two  years,  and  transportation  for  himself  and  family  between 
France  and  Algeria.  The  subordinate  force,  stationed  as  they 
frequently  are  in  out-of-the-way  places,  must  send  their  children 
to  school  in  the  nearby  towns  and  the  Forest  Service  pays  some- 
thing to  defray  this  increased  cost  of  boarding-school  education. 
The  administration  is  unquestionably  progressive.  The  de- 
velopment of  a  new  industry  such  as  the  turpentine  operations 
in  the  Aleppo-pine  forests  around  Oran,  is  worthy  of  American 
progress  and  ingenuity.  The  silvical  treatment  of  these  forests 
seems  practicable  and  at  the  same  time  sufficiently  conservative 
to  insure  regeneration.  After  a  study  of  management  in  Europe 
proper,  one  would  anticipate  rather  compUcated,  impracticable 
regulation  in  Algeria,  but  such  is  far  from  the  case.  What  could 
be  simpler  or  more  feasible  than  the  so-called  "  bundles  of  man- 
agement "  described  on  page  71?     In  the  yield  of  cork  oak,  the 


6  CONCLUSIONS   AND   SUMMARY 

assessor  inexpensively  determines  with  sufficient  accuracy  what 
the  annual  production  will  amount  to.  It  is  parallel  to  the  Amer- 
ican forester  in  New  England,  who  takes,  as  his  criterion  in  cop- 
pice, a  yield  of  a  cord  per  acre  per  year  and  then  deducts  accord- 
ing to  the  quahty  of  the  soil,  when  estimating  the  annual  growth. 
Another  difference  between  the  methods  in  France  and  Algeria 
is  in  the  sale  of  cork.  In  France  practically  all  timber  is  sold 
on  the  stump  after  it  has  been  marked  and  the  lumbering  is 
entirely  at  the  risk  and  cost  of  the  purchaser,  subject  to  stringent 
cutting  regulations.  In  Algerian  cork-oak  forests  the  lumbering 
is  done  by  the  government  and  the  cork  is  not  placed  on  sale 
until  it  has  been  collected  at  local  depots.  There  is  much  the 
same  forestation  policy  that  is  found  in  Tunisia.  It  is  believed 
that  the  prevention  of  the  destruction  of  forests  is  far  better 
than  the  cure  —  reforestation.  Winter  sowing  or  planting  after 
the  rains  have  commenced  is  almost  universal.  The  sowing  is 
usually  in  carefully  prepared  seed  spots  in  preference  to  planting, 
unless  the  conditions  are  so  unfavorable  that  the  success  of 
sowing  would  be  problematical.  They  favor  local  rather  than 
central  nurseries  which  require  the  expensive  and  deleterious 
shipment  of  planting  stock.  When  difficult  planting  must  be 
attempted,  ball  plants  are  frequently  used,  notwithstanding  the 
increased  initial  cost.  Contrary  to  expectations,  planting  in 
brush-covered  areas  was  very  unsuccessful  if  part  of  the  growing 
brush  was  left  standing  as  a  protection  against  the  sun  and  wind. 
Success  was  only  secured  after  practically  brushing  out  the  whole 
area  to  be  planted  since,  otherwise,  intense  radiation,  extreme 
heat,  lack  of  air  currents,  and  increased  damage  from  rodents 
prevented  the  growth  of  more  than  a  small  percentage  of  the 
stock.  According  to  Boutilly,  who  has  charge  of  the  forestation 
around  Algiers,  the  only  method  of  reducing  rodent  damage  was 
to  thoroughly  brush  out  and  clear  the  land  to  be  sown  instead  of 
being  content  simply  to  brush  out  seed  spots  or  strips.  With 
complete  clearing  "  the  rodents  have  no  clumps  to  hide  in  and 
almost  all  leave  the  area,  and  the  damage  is  reduced  accordingly. 
Moreover,  I  have  noticed  that  the  young  cork-oak  plants  which 
are    quite    tender   during   youth,    .    .    .    especially  at  the  end 


ALGERIA  7 

of  summer,  resist  the  heat  better  if  they  are  uncovered  than  they 
do  if  they  are  growing  in  the  midst  of  brush.  I  think  that  this 
phenomenon  is  due  to  the  freshness  caused  by  proper  aeration." 
The  air  circulates  better  and  the  plants  survive  when,  otherwise, 
they  would  succumb  to  the  heat. 

The  systematic  routine  methods  of  forestation  are  worthy  of 
study  by  all  American  State  and  Federal  forest  officers  who 
must  cope  with  arid  and  difficult  sites.  Notable  plantations 
have  been  established  at  Constantine,  Algiers,  Orleansville,  and 
Oran.  Local  species  gave  the  best  success,  sown  in  seed  spots 
or  grown  in  essentially  local  nurseries.  The  cost  of  these  plan- 
tations has  been  in  the  neighborhood  of  45  to  63  francs  ($8  to 
$12)  per  acre,  and  success  was  only  attained  after  repeatedly 
stocking  areas  which  had  shown  initial  failure. 

Even  with  stringent  fire  lines,  conscription  of  fire  lighters,  and 
forced  cooperation  of  the  civil  authorities,  and  with  the  concen- 
tration of  improvement  work  during  the  most  dangerous  part  of 
the  lire  season  (so  as  to  furnish  fire  fighters  in  out-of-the-way 
parts)  protection  has  not  been  altogether  successful.  Recently, 
boundary,  secondary,  and  main  fire  lines  have  been  constructed 
at  considerable  expense.  Notwithstanding  the  clearance  of  these 
lines  every  three  years,  fires  continue.  In  the  technique  of  fire-Hne 
construction,  progress  has  been  made,  but  it  appears  that  instead 
of  clearing  lines  every  three  years  it  would  be  preferable  to  clear 
one- third  of  all  lines,  except  those  less  than  15  metres  (16  yards)  in 
width,  every  third  year,  so  that  a  portion  of  the  line  would  always 
be  clear  of  grass  and  debris.  For  permanent  fire  lines,  they  have 
unquestionably  determined  that  it  is  cheaper  in  the  long  run  to 
grub  brush  and  trees  out  by  the  roots  rather  than  to  have  the 
increased  annual  expense  of  cutting  down  shoots  and  root  suckers. 
The  conclusion  may  be  formed,  however,  that  fairly  narrow  lines 
along  ridges  or  dry  arroyos  are  of  unquestionable  value,  both  as 
a  means  of  communication  and  as  a  vantage  point  from  which 
to  fight  fires,  notwithstanding  the  disastrous  results  from  indis- 
criminate back  firing.  As  in  Tunisia,  the  administration  is 
simple,  economical,  efficient,  and  is  a  credit  to  France. 


CONCLUSIONS   AND    SUMMARY 


Forest  administration  in  Corsica  is  hampered  by  an  unruly 
population,  by  over-grazing,  by  fires,  and,  in  past  years  espe- 
cially, by  lack  of  communication.  There  are  federal,  com- 
munal, and  private  forests,  and  the  organization  is  the  same 
as  is  found  on  the  Continent.  If  it  were  not,  however,  for 
the  inaccessibility  of  the  Corsican  pine,  growing  at  a  higher 
elevation  than  the  maritime  pine  but  below  the  beech  and  fir, 
there  would  be  but  Uttle  forest  wealth  left  on  the  island.  The 
great  lesson  to  be  learned  from  a  study  of  Corsican  forestry  is  in 
the  method  of  cutting  the  pine.  To  start  with,  an  appHcation  of 
the  shelterwood  system  resulted  in  large  areas  of  young  even-aged 
coniferous  stands.  To  be  sure,  it  is  theoretically  poor  technique 
to  reproduce  even-aged  stands  of  young  pine  over  large  areas 
where  fires  are  frequent;  but  technique  here  was  secondary  to 
the  practical  requirement  of  large  sales.  Long-term  sales  for 
large  amounts  were  a  necessary  evil  in  order  to  justify  contrac- 
tors in  building  expensive  wagon  roads.  Much  the  same  solution 
has  been  found  true  in  the  western  United  States,  where  at 
first  the  Forest  Service  Hmited  its  sales  to  less  than  30  to  40 
milHon  feet  (849,521.4  to  1,132,695.25  cu.m.).  To-day  in  order  to 
justify  improvements,  such  as  railroads  or  flumes,  sales  for  from 
half  a  bilHon  to  a  bilHon  board  feet  have  been  recommended. 
Bearing  in  mind,  therefore,  the  practical  sales  conditions  and  the 
danger  from  fire,  the  fairly  intensive  group  selection  system  with 
thinnings  seems  to  be  an  admirable  answer  to  the  problem  of 
regeneration.  There  is  no  rigidity  in  the  application  of  the 
selection  system.  There  are  seed  fellings,  secondary  fellings, 
final  clearances,  cleanings,  and  thinnings  as  with  the  shelterwood 
system;  but  each  operation  covers  an  acre  or  two  so  that  the 
result  is  an  uneven-aged  forest  by  groups. 

The  methods  of  determining  the  rotation  and  estimating 
the  yield  are  similar  to  those  in  France;  in  Corsica,  the  methods 
are,  however,  less  intensive.  The  dangers  of  over-cutting, 
owing  to  slack  regulation  in  past  years,  are  admirably  illus- 
trated by  many  of  the  Corsican  forests  where  to-day  one  finds 


CORSICA  9 

the  growing  stock  depleted  and  exhausted.  In  many  respects 
the  sales  conditions  contained  in  the  sale  contracts  are  similar 
to  those  used  by  the  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. But  there  is  one  vital  difference:  in  Corsica  the  con- 
cession of  making  sales  for  large  amounts  and  for  terms  of 
years  was  justified  by  the  resulting  improvement  in  communi- 
cations. There,  such  large  sales  are  considered  an  unquestion- 
able evil  but  necessary  until  the  transport  of  small-sales  products 
is  made  feasible  through  the  construction  of  permanent  logging 
roads.  In  the  United  States  steam  transportation  often  pre- 
cludes the  development  of  a  wagon-road  system  by  purchasers, 
but  an  attempt  is  now  being  made  to  make  current  sales  con- 
tribute towards  a  permanent  road  system. 

Where  the  administration  seems  to  have  failed  is  in  the  proper 
education  of  the  native  population  in  the  value  of  conservation. 
It  seems  almost  incredible  that  out  of  almost  600  trespass  cases, 
brought  in  191 1  before  the  courts,  more  than  half  were  acquitted. 
There  is  marked  contrast  between  this  lack  of  success  in  pre- 
venting, controlling,  and  punishing  trespassers  in  Corsica  with 
that  made  by  the  Forest  Service  in  the  western  United  States 
where  to-day  trespass  is  practically  a  thing  of  the  past. 


CHAPTER  II 
TUNISIA 

Introduction  (p.  lo),  General  Conditions,  Topography,  Winds,  Temperature, 
Humidity,  Rainfall. 

Forest  Conditions   (p.   14),   Forests,   Forest   Industries,  Progress   in  Forestry. 

Administrative  Organization  and  Legislation  (p.  18),  Forest  Service  Organiza- 
tion, Extensiveness  of  Administration,  Legislation. 

Forest  Management  (p.  23),  Forest  Regulation,  Silvicultural  Systems, 
Grazing. 

Protection  against  Fires  and  Moving  Sand  (p.  26),  Fires,  Protection  of  Cork- 
oak  Forests,  Problems  in  Protection,  Fire  Lines,  Location,  Width,  Clear- 
ance, Contract  Conditions,  Dune  and  Oasis  Protection,  Oases  Protection,  Sand 
Drifting  from  a  Distance,  Sand  Drifting  from  Local  Overgrazing,  Erosion. 

Forestation  and  Betterments  (p.  41),  Government  Forestation  Policy,  Seed 
Spots,  Stock,  Spacing,  Field  Technique,  Nursery  Methods,  Failures,  Im- 
provements. 

INTRODUCTION 

General  Conditions.  —  Any  examination  of  forests  or  forestry 
in  the  French  protectorate  of  Tunisia  would  be  incomplete 
without  a  brief  preliminary  glance  at  the  topography  of  the 
country  and  its  climatic  peculiarities.  Only  through  a  knowl- 
edge of  geographic  features  of  temperature,  humidity,  winds, 
and  rainfall  can  one  fully  comprehend  the  nature  of  Tunisia's 
forest  problems  and  the  progress  of  local  foresters  in  coping 
with  them.  Tunisia  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by  the 
Mediterranean  sea,  on  the  south  by  TripoU,  the  Italian  Colony; 
on  the  west  by  the  Algerian  province,  Constantine.  (Fig.  2.) 
This  territory  is  situated  between  32  degrees  and  37  degrees 
north  latitude  and  5  degrees  and  9  degrees  of  east  longitude 
and  comprises  approximately  130,000  square  kilometres  (50,000 
square  miles). 

Topography.  —  Tunisia  is  cut  by  three  chief  mountain 
chains:^    Khroumirie   and  Mogod,  in   the  north;    high  plateau 

1  The  statistics  given  are  taken  from  the  Official  Indicateur  Tunisien,  191 2. 


INTRODUCTION  II 

and  Dorsale,  in  the  center;  Matmata,  in  the  south.  While  the 
effect  of  each  of  these  mountain  chains  is  important  cHmati- 
cally,  the  ranges  of  Mogod  and  Matmata  have  perhaps  the 
greatest  direct  influence  of  all,  from  the  foresters'  standpoint, 


^     A     N     E     A     N  s     E 

■f  .we 


vxV^« 


Algiers     N\C^^:!r^o*«t<'r^--'' >^   ^''      -^-- '      lA   .y\ 


S.^J  "■ 


\^:-^j^  m 


T 


S  ; 


■  I  T      Ai 


Fig.  2.  —  Map  of  Tunisia  and  Algeria. 

by  protecting  local  forests  from  the  devastating  dry  winds  of 
the  desert. 

Winds,  Temperature,  Humidity.  —  The  direction  of  the 
winds  of  Tunisia  may  in  general  be  predicted  in  their  seasons 
with  reasonable  accuracy.  In  winter  the  dominant  wind  is 
from  the  northwest;  in  the  spring,  from  the  northwest  with  a 
tendency  to  north.  In  summer  it  changes  to  northeast,  es- 
pecially in  the  south,  where  this  is  the  prevailing  direction  in 
autumn,  though  above  the  Dorsale  the  autumn  winds  arise 
more  often  from  the. northwest. 

The  temperature  in  Tunisia  is  high  to  moderate,  in  summer 
reaching  an  average  of  28°  C.  (82°  F.)  to  32°  C.  (90°  F.) ;  in  winter 
a  minimum  of  from  3°  C.  (37°  F.)  to  8°  C.  (46°  F.).  As  a  matter 
of  fact  it  varies  according  to  the  elevation  above  sea  level  as 
is  shown  by  the  following  table: 


TUNISIA 

TABLE   I 


Ain-Draham .  . . 

Bizerta 

LeKef 

Sousse 

Gabes 

Gaf  sa 

Souk-el-Djemaa 

Feriana 

Kairouan 

Sf  ax 

Touseur 


In  other  words  the  average  annual  temperature  at  the  four 
mountain  stations  of  Ain-Draham,  Le  Kef,  Souk-el-Djemaa, 
and  Feriana  is  lower  than  that  for  the  entire  province  of  Tunisia. 
On  the  basis  of  these  data  the  average  annual  temperature 
for  Tunisia  is  i8°  C.  (65.6°  F.) ;  the  average  winter  temperature 
12°  C.  (53.6°  F.)  and  the  average  summer  temperature  23.5°  C. 
(74.3°  F.). 

Humidity  in  the  Khroumirie  Mountains  (cork  oak)  ranges 
from  85  to  100;  during  the  wet  seasons  and  in  summer  only 
is  it  less  than  70.  On  the  central  plateau  (aleppo  pine)  it  varies 
from  85  to  70  to  as  low  as  55  in  summer.  At  Tozeur,  near  the 
desert  to  the  south,  average  humidity  rarely  rises  above  70  and 
in  summer  is  below  55,  while  evaporation  varies  from  2013  mm. 
(78  inches)  at  Biserta  on  the  sea  to  2344  mm.  (91  inches)  at 
Tozeur,  and  2502  mm.  (97  inches)  at  El  Djem.  It  is  in  this 
region  that  conditions  are  most  unfavorable  for  tree  growth. 

Rainfall.  —  The  rainfall  in  Tunisia  is  torrential  and  irregular. 
At  Ain-Draham  in  the  Khroumirie  Mountains,  for  example, 
an  extreme  of  151.4  mm.  (5.8  inches)  was  recorded  for  one  day, 
and  at  El-Feidja,  a  higher  elevation  still,  167  mm.  (6.5  inches) 
was  reported  as  falling  in  the  24  hours. 

On  the  mountains  of  the  north  (cork  oak)  the  average  yearly 
rainfall  may  be  from  600  mm.  (23  inches)  to  1500  mm.  (58 
inches)  with  100  to  120  days  of  rain;  in  the  high  plateau  and 


INTRODUCTION 


13 


Dorsale  (aleppo  pine)  from  400  mm.  (16  inches)  to  600  mm. 
(23  inches)  with  50  to  80  days  of  rain,  while  in  the  southern 
oases,  such  as  Tozeur,  the  maximum  is  200  mm.  (7.8  inches) 
with  perhaps  25  rainy  days. 

The  distribution  of  the  rainfall  is  illustrated  by  the  weather 
records  at  Zaghouan,  bordering  the  central  plateau.  .  A  total 
of  519  mm.  (20  inches)  for  the  year,  with  73  days  of  rainfall, 
showed  28  mm.  (1.09  inches)  in  summer,  with  only  5  days  of 
rainfall;  autumn  121  mm.  (4.7  inches)  and  18  days  of  rain; 
winter  205  mm.  (8  inches)  and  28  days  of  rain;  spring  165  mm. 
(6.4  inches)  and  22  days  of  rain. 

The  amount  of  precipitation  and  number  of  rainy  days  for  the 
entire  year  and  for  different  seasons  uf  the  year  are  as  follows: 

TABLE   2 


No.  of 

rainy 
days. 

Winter. 

Summer. 

precipitation. 

No.  of 
rainy 
days. 

Arnount  of 
precipitation. 

No.  of 
rainy 
days. 

Amount  of 
precipitation. 

Ain-Draham 

Le  Kef 

146 
90 
52 
39 
47 
64 
51 
52 

Mm. 

463 

192 
237 
492 
291 

355 

68 
19 
18 
8 
8 
19 
II 
14 

"5 
53 
31 
23 
29 
32 
30 
33 

Mm. 
1-317 
305 
317 
132 

III 

157 
190 

Ins. 
52 
12 
12 

5  + 
7- 
12  — 
5  + 
8- 

31 
36 
19 
16 
18 
32 
21 
20 

Mm. 
408 
182 
146 
60 
64 
184 
134 
165 

Ins. 
16 

7 

6 

Sousse 

Gabes 

2+ 

Gafsa 

2  — 

Souk-el- Djemaa . . 

Kairouan 

Sfax 

8- 
5  + 

For  the  entire  Tunisia  the  average  number  of  rainy  days  is 
67  with  537  mm.  (22  inches)  of  rainfall.  The  average  number 
of  rainy  days  in  winter  is  43  with  362  mm.  (14  inches)  of  pre- 
cipitation. In  summer  the  number  of  rainy  days  is  24  with 
175  mm.  (6.9  inches)  of  rainfall. 

In  the  Sahara  region  the  precipitation  nowhere  exceeds 
300  mm.  (12  inches).  The  average  temperature  is  very  high. 
Its  maximum  reaches  50°  C.  (122°  F.)  in  the  shade.  The  num- 
ber of  days  with  temperatures  above  30°  C.  (86°  F.)  is  close  to 
150. 

These  records  are  taken  from  the  meteorological  records  at 
Tunis  where  they  have  been  collected  since  1884. 


14  TUNISIA 

These  data  for  rainfall  are  typical  of  conditions  in  both  Tunisia 
and  Algeria.  They  are  especially  significant  in  the  former 
country  as  showing  the  extent  of  the  summer  drought.  Except 
for  this,  since  the  valleys  of  Tunisia  are  usually  a  rich  clay- 
admirably  suited  to  agriculture,  the  country  would  be  an  ex- 
tremely fertile  one  the  year  around.  As  it  is,  the  winter  crops 
alone  are  amply  justifying  a  constantly  increasing  colonization. 


FOREST    CONDITIONS 

Forests.  —  The  forests  of  the  regency  cover  approximately 
650,000  hectares  (1,606,150  acres),  and  are  divided  into  two 
distinct  groups  by  the  Niedjerda  River.  They  are  distinct, 
also,  by  reason  of  the  difference  in  timber  species  of  the  two 
groups,  the  value  of  the  timber,  and  the  condition  of  the  stand. 

In  the  north  the  forests  of  the  Khroumirie  are  of  chief  im- 
portance. These  include  the  revenue-producing  stands  of  cork 
oak  (Q.  siiher)  and  zeen  (Algerian)  oak  {Q.  mirbeckii)  of  Ouchteta, 
M'Rassen,  Oulad-AH,  Ain-Draham,  Chiahia,  Ould-Zeen,  Frenana, 
Tabarca,  Houamdia,  Mekna,  and  Aindoun.  The  cork  oak  is  the 
species  of  principal  value,  though  the  zeen  oak,  in  the  richer, 
moister  soils,  sometimes  attains  a  diameter  of  0.91  metres  and 
over  (3  feet  and  over).  It  is  estimated  by  the  Forest  Service 
that  there  are  10  million  producing  cork-oak  trees  and  40,000 
cu.  m.  (1,412,560  cu.  ft.)  of  zeen  oak,  excluding  branch  wood. 
During  the  ten-year  period  ending  in  1909  the  average  cut 
apparently  exceeded  the  increment.  Incidentally,  it  may  be 
noted  that  yearly  sales  amounted  to  20,000  cu.  m.  (706,280 
cu.  ft.)  of  zeen  oak  from  1883  to  1900;  396,000  cu.  m.  (13,984,344 
cu.  ft.)  of  zeen  oak  was  sold  for  ties,  and  30,000  quintaux 
(6,613,860  pounds)  of  cork. 

In  addition  to  the  two  chief  species  —  cork  oak  and  zeen  oak  — 
there  is  along  the  valley  bottoms  of  these  forests,  alder,  willow, 
black  and  white  poplar,  ash,  holly,  laurel,  tamarind,  black 
bryony,  and  azerolier.  The  understory  is  often  dense  and 
a  possible  fire  menace  appears  in  heather,  myrtle,  mastic, 
cytisus,  etc. 


FOREST   CONDITIONS  15 

The  forests  of  Nefze  and  Mogod  are  in  the  northern  group, 
but  of  much  less  value  than  those  described  in  the  preceding 
paragraph.  They  are  for  the  most  part  covered  with  a  scanty 
coppice  of  holm  oak,  wild  olive,  etc.,  which  ranges  in  spots 
into  mere  brush. 

The  central  plateau  forests,  as  distinguished  from  the  north- 
ern group,  produce  no  revenue,  but  are  maintained  for  the 
protection  of  springs  and  water  supply  and  to  fill  local  domestic 
needs.  They  have  been  denuded  by  excessive  cutting,  by 
grazing,  and  by  burns;  indeed,  they  are  still,  as  they  have  been 
in  the  past,  periodically  burned  over  during  excessively  dry 
seasons.  Their  chief  species  are  aleppo  pine  and  holm  oak, 
with  a  smaller  quantity  of  wild  oHve,  carob  tree,  thuya,  juniper, 
and  cypress.  So  poor  is  the  condition  of  these  central  plateau 
forests  that  an  official  report  in  the  files  of  the  Djebel-Mansour 
ranger  station  refers  to  the  areas  covered  as  "ruins  of  the 
former  forests." 

According  to  data  supplied  by  Zon:  In  locahties  above  1000 
metres  (3281  feet)  the  soils  are  composed  of  hard  calcareous 
rocks  unsuitable  for  agriculture,  bare  or  covered  with  low  shrubs 
and  forests.  Below  are  found  pastures.  At  a  height  of  600 
to  2000  metres  (1968  to  6562  feet)  above  sea  level,  on  the 
plateaus  the  cultivation  of  crops  is  possible  and  profitable. 
In  this  zone,  especially  on  the  northern  slopes,  are  found  the 
best  forests.  Between  the  altitudes  of  400  and  600  metres 
(13 1 2  and  1968  feet)  the  forests  are  still  of  good  quality  but 
shrubs  become  evident.  Agriculture  is  still  possible  in  this 
zone.  The  lowest  zone  situated  between  the  sea  level  and  an 
altitude  of  400  metres  (13 12  feet)  is  covered  with  sand  dunes, 
lakes,  small  rivers,  and  valleys.  The  valleys  are  under  crops 
and  vineyards. 

Here  also  grow  olive  trees  and  palms.  Where  the  soil  and 
climatic  conditions  are  unfavorable  for  agricultural  crops,  they 
are  being  used  for  grazing  of  cattle.  In  the  lower  zone  forests 
are  almost  entirely  lacking  and  when  they  do  occur  are  of  poor 
quaUty.  The  entire  land  surface  of  Tunisia  may  be  classified 
as  follows: 


i6 


TUNISIA 


TABLE  3 


1000  acres. 


Fields  and  pastures 

Vineyards 

Olive  plantations 

Palms 

Date  palms 

Forested  areas 

Grazing  land  (prairie) 

Shore  dunes 15,650 

Sahara  dunes 1,792,000 

Prairie  covered  with  grasses 
Lakes,  lagnores,  and  rivers. 

Roads 

Total 


These  figures  give  a  concrete  picture  of  the  actual  state  of 
prosperity  of  the  country  as  evidenced  by  productive  and  un- 
productive land.  The;,  area  under  rood  system  is  especially 
interesting. 

Forest  Industries.  —  Cork  is  the  chief  product  of  Tunisian 
forests.  The  cork  oak  covers  approximately  from  99  to  100 
thousand  hectares  (244,629  to  247,100  acres)  of  the  650,000 
hectares  (1,606,150  acres)  which  is  the  estimated  sum  total  of 
the  country's  commercial  forest  area.  As  "by-products"  the 
cork  oak  yields  also  firewood  and  tannin. 

A  tree  is  first  barked  (for  a  detailed  description  of  cork-oak 
management,  see  p.  66)  when  it  reaches  30  cm.  (11.8  inches) 
in  circumference  inside  bark  or  40  cm.  (15.8  inches)  to  50  cm. 
(19.6  inches)  outside;  seedlings  reach  this  size  at  30  years  and 
sprouts  in  15  to  18.  The  first  peehng  costs  about  9  centimes 
($0.01737)  per  tree;  the  average  tree  in  Tunisia  produces  5.75 
kilos  (13  pounds)  of  cork  per  crop.  The  cost  of  collection 
is  estimated  at  3.50  francs  ($0.67)  per  quintal  (220  pounds); 
transport  to  depots  i  franc  ($0,193);  transport  to  shipping  point 
5  francs  ($0.96);  baling  and  preparation  5  francs  ($0.96);  mak- 
ing a  total  cost  of  14.50  francs  ($2.80)  as  against  the  average 
sale  price  of  30.50  francs  ($5.88).  From  1895  to  1901,  inclusive, 
327,000  quintaux  (72,091,074  pounds)  of  cork  were  sold  for 
7,165,000  francs  ($1,382,845),  or  an  average  of  21.91  francs 
($4.23)   per   quintal    (220  pounds)    for   that  period.     But   the 


FOREST   CONDITIONS  1 7 

sale  figures,  from  year  to  year,  vary  greatly.  They  have  been 
as  high  as  35.66  francs  ($6.88)  per  quintal  (220  pounds)  at  the 
forest  depot.  When  ready  for  dehvery  at  the  ocean  shipping 
point  the  average  price  is  45  francs  ($8.68)  per  quintal  (220 
pounds). 

From  1885  to  1908,  32,430  quintaux  (7,149,583  pounds)  of 
tannin  bark  averaged  9.35  francs  ($1.80)  per  quintal  (220  pounds) 
but  for  the  last  8  years  the  price  of  the  bark  of  the  tree  has 
brought,  on  the  average,  the  same  figure. 

The  zeen  oak  is  used  chiefly  for  ties,  though  the  saplings 
make  good  charcoal.  The  mature  tree  of  this  species  reaches 
a  height  of  25  to  30  metres  (82  to  98  feet)  and  attains  a  diam- 
eter of  one  metre  (3.3  feet).  It  resists  decay  well,  despite  the 
alternating  dry  and  wet  seasons,  but  hews  badly.  The  timber 
formerly  brought  about  5  francs  ($0.96)  per  cu.  m.  (35  cu.  ft.) 
standing,  but  prices  have  risen  of  late  to  7  and  8  francs  ($1.35 
and  $1.54)  per  cu.  m.  (35  cu.  ft.)  and  trees  sold  recently  for  12 
francs  ($2.32)  per  cu.  m.  (35  cu.  ft.)  in  sales  at  Feidja  in  the 
Khroumirie. 

The  aleppo  pine  and  holm  oak  are  species  of  distinctly  sec- 
ondary importance,  but  the  pine  is  used  for  boxes,  crates,  mine 
props,  ties,  forge  charcoal,  telegraph  poles,  firewood,  and  occa- 
sionally planks  or  boards;  it  is  an  excellent  secondary  wood. 
The  holm  oak  is  used  chiefly  for  fuel. 

Progress  in  Forestry.  —  A  Tunisian  Forest  Service  (Directoire 
des  Forets)  was  created  in  1883  under  the  Public  Works;  by 
the  decree  of  Jan.  13,  1895,  the  administration  of  the  forests  was 
transferred  to  the  Agriculture  and  Commerce  "Direction." 

The  principal  revenue  derived  through  the  activities  of  this 
Forest  Service  comes,  as  has  been  indicated,  from  the  cork-oak 
and,  in  part,  the  zeen-oak  forests  of  the  Khroumirie  Mountains. 
Besides  administering  these  productive  areas,  the  functions  of 
the  service  contemplate  the  patroUng  of  the  other  forests  where 
aleppo  pine  and  holm  oak  are  dominant,  purely  for  watershed  or 
chmatic  reasons,  or  supervising  the  cutting  of  wood  for  local 
fuel  or  for  domestic  purposes,  such  as  corral  or  hut  poles. 
Reforestation  is   undertaken  in   various   localities   notably   at 


l8  TUNISIA 

Hammam-Lif  and  Zaghouan,  where  the  project  is  rather  for 
protection  than  for  commercial  purposes.  The  protection  of 
the  oases  at  the  Djerid,  and  the  Dune  control  at  Bizerta  and 
environs,  is,  too,  a  notable  achievement.  As  a  whole,  the 
methods  of  forest  administration  in  Tunisia  are  less  intensive 
than  in  Algeria,  but  follow  very  closely  the  Hnes  laid  down  by 
the  older  organization. 

Since  1894  the  annual  receipts  have  varied  from  603,000 
to  1,337,000  francs  ($116,379  to  $258,041),  and  on  Dec.  31,  1910, 
totaled  an  aggregate  of  16,700,000  francs  ($3,223,100). 

The  development  work  has  included  the  building  of  2100 
kilometres  (1204  miles)  of  roads  and  trails;  and  the  clearing 
of  2975  hectares  (7351  acres)  of  fire  lines,  at  a  total  cost  of 
2,380,000  francs  ($459,340);  also  the  erection  of  63  forest  houses 
and  58  native  huts  at  3,360,000  francs  ($648,480). 

In  theory  all  land  belonged  originally  to  the  Bey,  his  people 
acquiring  agricultural  rights  by  use.  This  settlement  of  agri- 
cultural land  is  strongly  favored  by  forest  officers  for  two 
reasons:  First,  because  with  the  forest  cut  up  by  agricultural 
holdings  in  the  valleys,  fire  lines  proper  are  unnecessary  in 
such  locations,  and  the  Forest  Service  is  thereby  saved  the  cost 
of  their  construction;  and  second,  a  local  population  is  thought 
desirable  because  it  gives  a  loyal  working  class  which  can  be 
advantageously  employed  in  forest  work. 

The  boundary  problem,  however,  is  a  difficult  and  as  yet 
thoroughly  unsettled  one,  owing  largely  to  the  number  of  in- 
terior holdings.  Originally  the  boundaries  were  hurriedly  drawn 
in  the  office,  from  highly  inaccurate  type  maps  instead  of  in 
the  field,  and  while  the  present  administration  is  attacking  the 
matter  in  a  more  efficient  manner,  it  will  take  from  10  to  25 
years  longer,  in  all  probability,  to  adjust  and  establish  the  forest 
boundaries. 


ADMINISTRATIVE    ORGANIZATION    AND    LEGISLATION 

Forest  Service  Organization.  —  The  forests  are  administered 
by  a  conservator  or  director  at  Tunis  assisted  by  an  inspector 


ORGANIZATION   AND    LEGISLATION 


19 


(who  is  also  in  charge  of  a  circumscription),  an  interpreter,  a 
ranger,  a  compiler  (editor),  and  one  clerk. 


Fig.  3.  —  French  ranger  and  Arab  assistants  at  ranger  station  in  Tunisia. 

The  local  force  is  as  follows: 


Location  of  headquarters. 


Officer  in  charge. 


Tabarca 

Nefze-Mogod 
Ain-Draham . 
El-Feidja.... 

Tunis 

Kef 

Gafsa...,.  ... 
Total  . 


Assistant  inspector 
Forest  assistant    .  . 

Inspector 

Forest  assistant  . . . 

Inspector 

Forest  assistant.'. . . 
Forest  assistant  . . . 


b4 


It  will  be  noted  that  the  supervisory  force  is  comparatively 
small  and  that  the  number  of  native  guards  is  approximately 
equal  to  the  number  of  French  guards  and  rangers. 

The  ofl&cer  in  charge  is  an  inspector,  assistant  inspector, 
or  forest  assistant,  according  to  the  importance  of  the  area 
administered  and  the  number  of  each  grade  available  for  local 
appointment;    ordinarily   an    experienced    ranger    or    guard    is 


20  TUNISIA 

assigned  to  his  office  as  clerk.  In  Tunisia  each  French  guard 
or  ranger  is  usually  housed  in  the  center  of  his  beat,  together 
with  a  native  guard,  who  usually  accompanies  him  when  on 
inspections  as  a  protection  against  assassination. 

The  conservator  is  paid  13,000  francs  ($2509)  per  annum; 
inspectors,  8000  ($1544),  7000  ($1351),  6500  ($1254.50),  and 
6000  francs  ($1158)  in  four  grades;  assistant  inspectors,  5500 
($1061.50),  5000  ($965),  and  4500  francs  ($868.50)  in  three 
grades;  forest  assistants,  4000  ($772)  and  3500  francs  ($675.50) 
in  two  grades,  and  if  assigned  to  an  office  as  clerk,  3000 
($579);  rangers  in  four  grades,  2200  ($424.60),  2000  ($386),  1800 
($347.40),  and  1600  francs  ($308.80);  French  guards  receive 
1500  ($289.50)  and  1400  francs  ($270.20)  in  two  grades. 


Fig.  4.  —  1  h-  I  )j(l)rl  Ranger  Station  in  southern  Tunisia.      Built  on  the  site 
of  an  old  Roman  militarv'  camp. 

Besides  being  well  housed  a  ranger  receives  fuel  or  an  allow- 
ance of  75  francs  ($14.48),  200  francs  ($38.60)  for  travel  ex- 
penses, and  600  francs  ($115.80)  per  year  for  a  horse;  the  guards 
receive  the  same  allowance  but  with  only  100  francs  ($19.30) 
for  travel.  The  native  guards  are  ordinarily  little  more  than 
grooms. 

In  the  cork-oak  forests  the  force  is  kept  employed  super- 
vising the  state  peeling  and  collecting  operations  but  in  the 


ORGANIZATION  AND   LEGISLATION  21 

central  plateau  the  work  is  very  light  and  much  of  the  time  is 
spent  on  chores.  Typical  extracts  from  a  diary  ^  are  given 
below,  each  day  being  numbered  serially: 

1.  "At  station  writing  letters,  the  native  guard  went  to 
Pont  du  Fabs  to  cash  his  salary  check." 

2.  "On  a  trip  in  the  canton  of  TeUl  Esallie  and  Telil  Bon- 
aka  informed  me  that  .  .  .  has  not  moved  their  camp  in 
accordance  with  the  order  received  July  29th." 

Then  follows:  " Proces- verbal  feuille  No.  27"  re  the  trespass. 
(Had  camped  within  100  metres  (109  yards)  of  the  forest.) 

3.  "Overseeing  collection  of  aleppo-pine  seed." 

4.  "Sunday  at  the  station." 

5.  "Holiday  at  the  station." 

6.  "On  a  trip  to  Tarf  ech  Chena,  found  two  carts  loaded 
with  poles  without  permit.     Took  data  about  these  poles." 

7.  "At  Bon  Arada,  got  the  mail,  spent  the  night  at  Bon 
Djelida." 

Extensiveness  of  Administration.  —  For  the  circumscription 
of  El-Feidja  in  the  cork  district  of  Khroumirie  the  estimated 
receipts  for  191 2  totaled  154,000  francs  ($29,722),  whereas  the 
expenses  totaled  105,678.54  francs  ($20,376.66).  Thus  the  net 
yield  for  2000  hectares  (4942  acres)  was  in  this  instance  48,421.46 
francs  ($9345.34),  or  almost  $2  per  acre  per  year. 

Here  the  collection  of  cork  is  made  by  the  state;  the  force 
consisting  of  one  forest  assistant  in  charge,  assisted  by  6  French 
and  7  native  subordinates. 

The  expenses  at  El-Feidja  in  detail  for  a  typical  year  are: 
personnel,  19,716.66  francs  ($3805.31);  payments  for  travel, 
horse  upkeep,  etc.,  10,095.83  francs  ($1948.50);  fire  protection, 
1000  francs  ($193);  first  peeHng  of  oak,  6700  francs  ($1293.10); 
collection  of  cork,  6900  francs  ($1331.70);  paths,  etc.,  6300  francs 
($1215.90);  miscellaneous  betterments,  1050  francs  ($202.65); 
maintenance  of  fire  fines  and  protection,  6500  francs  ($1254.50); 
roads,  trails,  etc.,  5685.50  francs  ($1097.30);  fences  and  build- 
ings, 719.95  francs  ($138.95);  plantation  and  nurseries,  50  francs 
($9.65);  fire  watchers,   1660.80  francs  ($320.53);  marking,  400 

2  Diary  of  a  ranger  at  Djebel  Mansaur. 


22  TUNISIA 

francs  ($77.20);  forest  houses,  14,500  francs  ($2798.50).  This 
is  a  total  of  105,578.54  francs  ($20,376.66).  Intensiveness  of 
administration  is  especially  apparent  in  the  cork-oak  region,  in 
marked  contrast  to  the  extensive  management  in  the  central 
plateau.  There  the  average,  under  a  head  ranger  and  three 
guards,  is  70,362  hectares  (173,864  acres)  at  a  total  cost  of 
about  10,000  francs  ($1930).  At  the  Djerid  oases  the  revenue 
is  also  nil  with  heavy  expenses  for  protecting  valuable  private 
property  (the  date-palm  oases). 

Legislation.  —  There  is  no  definite  forest  code,  as  in  Algeria, 
but  within  the  past  13  years  special  forest  decrees  have  been 
signed  by  the  Bey  which  apply  to  wooded  federal  land.  The 
essential  details  of  this  recent  legislation  are  summarized: 

A  commission  ^  was  appointed  to  settle  all  boundary  questions 
and  to  fix  more  definitely  the  boundaries  of  bordering  holdings 
in  the  presence  of  those  interested.  A  later  decree^  contained 
protective  measures  as  follows:  No  Kghting  of  fires  from  May  i 
to  November  15  in  the  interior  or  within  200  metres  (218  yards) 
of  pubKc  or  private  forests,  even  for  burning  charcoal  or  the 
extraction  of  tar  or  distillation  of  resin,  but  the  director  may 
authorize  an  exemption  from  this  rule  if  there  is  no  fire  danger 
during  May,  October,  or  November.  It  is  forbidden  to  set 
fire  for  any  reason  whatever  to  forests,  brush,  grass,  or  woods 
between  May  i  and  November  15  and  during  the  rest  of  the 
year  those  burning  any  vegetation  are  responsible  for  any  damage 
and  must  give  eight  days'  notice  to  adjoining  owners.-'' 

For  six  years  after  a  forest  is  burned  over  grazing  is  forbidden 
and  the  following  fines  are  imposed  in  case  of  trespass:  hog, 
sheep,  or  calf,  i  franc  ($0,193);  cow,  steer,  goat,  or  horse,  2 
francs  ($0,386);  camel,  5  francs  ($0,965).  These  rates  are 
doubled  if  the  trespass  on  a  burned  area  is  committed  at  night. 

Steam  railways  or  steam  trams  are  required  to  keep  their 

2  Decree  of  July  22,  1903. 

^  Decree  of  July  26,  1903. 

^  This  rule  was  found  to  be  too  severe  and  was  modified  on  July  27,  191 1, 
to  permit  burning  stubble  from  August  16  to  November  15  after  making  a  15- 
metre  (16  yards)  fire  line  around  area,  after  notifying  the  local  magistrate  and 
the  bordering  owners  of  the  approximate  date  of  burning  at  least  15  days  in  advance. 


FOREST  MANAGEMENT  23 

rights-of-way  cleared  from  June  i  to  October  31  when  bordering 
forests,  and  if  considered  necessary,  in  addition,  fire  Hnes,  20 
metres  (22  yards)  in  width,  commencing  at  the  right-of-way 
boundary,  must  be  cleared  of  conifers,  as  well  as  ordinary  brush. 
If  not  cleared  by  the  companies  they  may  be  estabhshed  by 
the  Forest  Service  on  authorization  of  the  Governor  General 
and  a  bill  for  the  work  collected  from  the  railway.  No  industry 
using  fire  or  any  inflammable  substance  can  be  established 
within  500  metres  (547  yards)  of  a  forest;  nor  any  tent  or  brush 
hut  within  100  metres  (109  yards).  Within  reserved  forest 
areas  no  deforestation  is  permitted,  except  when  wood  is  re- 
quired to  protect  stream  beds  against  erosion,  for  improving 
springs,  or  for  protection  against  sand.^ 

FOREST   MANAGEMENT 

Forest  Regulation.  —  There  are  no  working  plans  for  forests 
in  Tunisia.  One  reason  why  formal  working  plans  are  not 
required  for  the  intensively  managed  cork  oak  is  because  the 
inevitable  fires  would  certainly  derange  any  fixed  annual  yield 
which  might  have  been  prescribed.  Since  there  are  no  reg- 
ular fellings  for  the  holm  oak  or  aleppo  pine  no  plans  are  re- 
quired for  these  forests.  The  cutting  of  zeen  oak  often  depends 
on  the  market  rather  than  on  the  silvical  needs  of  the  species. 

The  collection  of  cork  is,  however,  roughly  regulated  as 
follows:  When  the  trees  on  a  definite  area  are  barked  for  the 
first  time  a  cumulative  record  is  kept  of  the  exact  number  on 
each  subdivision  with  the  date  when  peeled;  from  this  record 
it  is  possible  to  predict  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  what  the 
crop  will  amount  to  each  year  since  the  average  crop  per  tree 
is  known  from  experience.  The  judgment  of  the  officer  must 
decide  whether  the  average  tree  for  each  year  is  below  or  above 
the  average  in  size.  There  is  no  record  kept  of  the  number  of 
trees  of  each  diameter.  Approximately  the  same  annual  yield 
is  secured  because  the  blocks  are  so  divided  that  an  equal  area 
is  theoretically  cropped  each  year. 

*  Compare  these  protective  measures  with  those  given  in  the  Algeria  code, 
p.  185. 


N.  C.  State  College 

24  TUNISIA 

The  official  record  includes:  (i)  Composition  of  the  lots — 
number  of  the  block  and  compartment,  number  of  trees  counted 
at  the  first  peehng,  number  of  trees  remaining  on  a  given  date 
(when  crop  collected),  year  of  first  production,  remarks.  (2) 
Order  of  exploitations  —  number  of  the  blocks,  dates  of  the 
exploitations  and  production  during  20  years  commencing  with 
1907,  age  of  the  bark  at  the  time  of  exploitation,  remarks. 
(3)  Products  reahzed  —  year,  weight  of  dry  cork,  price  of  the 
sale:  (a)  total,  (b)  per  quintal  (220  pounds),  miscellaneous 
data.  For  each  compartment  of  each  block  a  further  record 
is  kept  headed:  (i)  Producing  —  peeled:  (a)  year,  (b)  number 
of  trees;  increases:  (a)  year,  (b)  number  of  trees,  year  of  the 
crop  collection  or  of  the  first  increase;  accidental  operations: 
(a)  year,  (b)  reason.  (2)  Collected  —  year,  number  of  trees, 
year  of  the  peehng,  collection  or  increase,  amounts,  price  of 
the  sale,  remarks. 

Silvicultural  Systems.  —  The  cork  oak  is  managed  on  the 
selection  system,  as  in  Algeria,  on  a  rotation  of  80  to  100  years 
and  a  peehng  cycle  of  3  years.  The  cork  matures  in  8  to  12 
years.     (See  page  60  for  Algerian  cutting  rules.) 

The  zeen  oak  is  cut  under  a  simplified  shelterwood  system 
with  a  seed  felhng  and  a  final  removal  of  the  seed  trees  in  15 
to  20  years,  depending  on  the  local  market  rather  than  the 
progress  of  seeding.  While  no  definite  rotation  has  been  se- 
lected, it  is  expected  that  120  years  will  be  required.  The 
scrub  oaks  and  ohve  are  coppiced.  The  aleppo  pine  is  not 
regularly  exploited. 

Grazing.  —  The  only  restriction  upon  ordinary  grazing  is 
after  a  conflagration,  when  no  stock  can  enter  for  a  period  of 
6  years  under  a  fixed  penalty  per  head.^  Grazing  is  otherwise 
practically  unregulated,  except  in  the  Khroumirie  where  special 
provision  is  made  for  the  grazing  of  hogs.  These  rights^  are 
reserved  for  local  French  colonists  within  the  district  but  are 
occasionally  granted  to  foreigners  (Itahans)  who  have  enjoyed 
the   privilege   previously   and  who   have  been    resident  for  a 

^  For  these  fines  see  page  22. 

*  Based  on  official  circular,  dated  July  30,  1903. 


FOREST  MANAGEMENT  25 

number  of  years.  No  one  permittee,  however,  is  ordinarily  allowed 
to  lease  more  than  200  hectares  (494  acres)  of  contiguous  land. 
The  areas  reserved  from  grazing  are:  Ranger-station  gardens 
and  fields,  land  within  300  metres  (328  yards)  of  any  ranger 
station,  land  cultivated  by  natives  within  the  forest,  recent 
felHng  areas,  land  burned  over  (for  a  period  of  6  years),  land 
heretofore  used  by  natives.  It  is  clearly  understood  that  the 
forest  administration  assumes  no  responsibihty  in  the  case  of 
conflicting  claims.  The  price  charged  is  based  on  an  estimated 
10  hectares  (25  acres)  to  each  sow  (and  litter),  and  amounts 
to  0.30  francs  ($0.06)  per  hectare  (2.5  acres)  per  year,  paid  in 
advance.  The  boundaries,  total  areas,  and  number  of  stock 
admitted  are  authorized  in  advance  by  the  director  for  each 
forest.  The  permittee  agrees  to  keep  stock  on  the  leased  area; 
when  building  brush  huts  (gourbis)  to  pay  for  poles  20  to  60  cm. 
(7.9  to  23  inches)  in  circumference,  1.50  francs  ($0.29)  each;  60  to 
120  cm.  (23  to  41  inches),  3  francs  ($0.58)  per  cu.  m.  (35  cu.  ft.) 
on  the  stump,  and  for  logs  120  cm.  (48  inches)  and  larger, 
6  francs  ($1.16)  per  cu.  m.  (35  cu.  ft.).  The  right  of  entry  into 
huts  (gourbis)  for  counting  or  for  taxing  purposes  is  reserved, 
and  revocation  of  permit  is  the  penalty  for  excess  in  numbers. 
Permittees  are  bound  to  repair  damage  to  roads,  trails,  or  tim- 
ber yards.  The  right  of  seizure  is  reserved  if  stock  is  found 
off  the  allotment.  In  accordance  with  the  lire  decrees  no  fires 
can  be  Ughted  in  or  within  200  metres  (219  yards)  of  the  forest 
unless  surrounded  by  a  ditch  i  metre  (i  yard)  deep  and  by  a 
wall  of  dry  stones;  soil  around  huts  must  be  cleared  within  a 
radius  of  25  metres  (27  yards)  but  the  permittee  in  addition  is 
held  responsible  for  all  fire  damage  (or  offences),  even  if  caused 
by  his  employees  after  taking  these  precautions.  Concessions 
are  personal,  revocable,  and  nontransferable.  In  the  official 
language:  "At  the  expiration  of  the  permit  the  administration 
reserves  the  right  to  auction  off  the  right  to  graze,  to  renew 
the  former  permits  under  new  rules  or  to  cancel  all  permits 
purely  and  simply"  —  "but  ...  in  case  of  renewal  the  pref- 
erence will  be  given  former  permittees  either  to  retain  their 
former  permits  or  to  change  the  allotment." 


26  TUNISIA 

The  forest  administration  absolves  itself  from  the  responsi- 
bility of  providing  additional  range,  even  temporarily,  in  case 
any  allotment  is  found  insufhcient.  It  also  states  in  advance 
that  it  will  pay  no  claim  arising  from  a  burning  of  the  range, 
or  because  of  loss  or  damage  in  any  form,  even  if  caused  by 
act  of  Providence.  Moreover,  the  administration  reserves  the 
right  to  interpret  all  questions  which  may  arise  in  connection 
with  the  enjoyment  of  the  grazing.  This  is  similar  to  tlie  policy 
followed  in  the  western  United  States. 

PROTECTION   AGAINST   FIRES   AND   MOVING   SAND 

Fires.  —  Incendiarism  is  still  the  chief  cause  of  fire.^  It  is 
combated  with  only  partial  success  by  the  restriction  of  graz- 
ing.    The  fire  protective   system  in  the  less  valuable   forests 


^ 


Fig.  5.  —  The  result  of  fire  in  an  aleppo-pine  forest  in  southern  Tunisia. 
Near  the  Djebel  Mansaur  Ranger  Station. 

of  the  Central  Plateau  consists  merely  of  a  general  patrol, 
which  is  not  supplemented  by  fire  lines,  lookouts,  telephones, 
or  by  a  special  protective  force.  In  the  more  valuable  cork- 
oak  forests  there  are  five  lookouts,  patrols,  occasionally  tele- 

*  Since  the  Algerian  fire  problem  will  be  fully  described,  only  the  more  impor- 
tant phases  of  Tunisian  protection  are  given. 


PROTECTION  AGAINST   FIRES   AND   MOVING   SAND  27 

phones,  and  invariably  costly  fire  lines  which  will  be  described 
in  detail  hereafter. 

In  the  small  forest  gardens  at  the  oases  in  southern  Tunisia 
there  is  no  necessity  for  any  kind  of  protective  measures.  In 
addition  to  the  fire  lines  along  railroad  rights-of-way  the  fol- 
lowing notice  is  posted  in  railroad  cars: 

"...  Travelers  are  warned  that  it  is  forbidden  to 
throw  anything  on  the  track  and  that  a  violation  is  punish- 
able with  a  fine  of  from  16  to  2000  francs  ($3.08  to  $386.00) 
and  by  an  imprisonment  of  from  3  days  to  a  month.  .  .  . 
It  is  especially  important  to  refrain  from  throwing  anything 
hghted  on  the  track  (such  as  burning  matches,  ends  of  cigars 
or  cigarettes,  etc.)  which  could  set  fire  to  grass,  brush,  etc., 
that  might  in  their  turn  communicate  fire  to  crops." 

While  this  notice  is  evidently  designed  to  protect  crops,  it 
is  also  an  excellent  warning  to  be  posted  by  all  railroads  passing 
through  inflammable  forests. 

Protection  of  Cork-oak  Forests.  —  The  policy  of  concentrating 
costly  protection  on  the  most  valuable  forests  is  followed  in 
Tunisia.  The  cork  oak,  after  peeling,  is  easily  scorched,  and 
the  dense  undergrowth  makes  successful  protection  doubly 
difficult  and  uncertain.  There  is  a  considerable  difference  of 
opinion,  as  in  Algeria,  regarding  the  details  of  protection,  but 
the  following  statement  gives  a  resume  of  the  director's  con- 
clusions in  191 2 :  ^'^ 

"...  Experience  has  shown  that  the  fire  lines  20  to 
30  metres  (22  to  33  yards)  wide  and  only  brushed  out 
are  almost  always  ineffective  in  case  of  fire,  unless  all  the 
trees  or  stems  on  the  fire  lines  are  removed.  The  only  system 
of  protection  recognized  as  (absolutely)  certain  consists  in 
the  complete  brushing  around  trees  and  stump  extraction. 
Its  appHcation  was  made  for  the  first  time  in  1895  i^  various 
stands  of  the  district  of  Taborca. 

This  means  of  protection  has  the  double  advantage  of  re- 
moving the  brush,  food  for  fires,  of  replacing  fire  lines,  and 
besides,  of  faciHtating  the  entry  of  stock  into  the  forests,  of 
creating  pasturage  and  consequently  suppressing  the  agita- 
tors who  urge  the  native  inhabitants  to  fire  the  forests. 

^°  L'Indicateur  Tunisien,  1912,  p.  296. 


28  TUNISIA 

But  if  this  method  of  protection  is  effective  it  is  on  the 
other  hand  very  expensive.  It  should  only  be  applied  to 
fully  stocked  forested  areas  which  can  compensate  by  their 
revenue  for  the  outlay.  For  the  rest  of  the  stands  one  can 
only  make  use  of  fire  lines  laid  out  on  the  main  ridges  and 
dividing  the  forest  in  blocks  of  varying  size  according  to  the 
ground.  But  these  Hnes  must  be  at  least  50  metres  (55 
yards)  wide,  must  be  entirely  cleared  of  every  tree,  stem 
bush,  shrub,  etc.,  and  have  in  the  center  an  area  10  to  15 
metres  (11  to  16  yards)  wide  where  all  stumps  have  been 
removed  on  which  can  be  built  either  a  good  path  or  a  cause- 
way of  stones  according  to  the  quahty  and  configuration  .of 
the  soil." 

Problems  in  Protection.  —  The  main  problems  in  protection 
which  have  confronted  the  forest  administration  in  the  cork- 
oak  forests  are  as  follows:    (i)  How  to  secure  successful  pro- 


%i^~ 4iMm^  ^" '  jP 

*     '-■■■.  ^ 

•4'.  :^V>/-^ 

Fig.  6.  —  A  recently  cleared  fire  line  in  cork  oak. 

tection;  (2)  value,  need,  and  cost  of  fire  lines;  (3)  their  location, 
width,  clearance,  maintenance,  and  the  execution  of  the  work 
by  contract. 

Fire  Lines.  —  With  the  inflammable  underbrush  uncleared 
on  the  forest  as  a  whole,  successful  protection  can  be  assured 
only  by  the  periodical  brush  removal  on  the  fire  lines,  which  is 
usually  done  on  a  cycle  of  three  years. 


PROTECTION  AGAINST   FIRES   AND   MOVING   SAND  29 

Yet  even  fire  lines  are^by  no  means  a  sure  prevention  against 
fires  nor  are  fires  once  under  way  certain  to  be  arrested  by 
properly  laid-out  lines,  even  if  fully  manned  at  the  time  of  the 
conflagration.  On  the  other  hand,  without  fire  lines,  which  are 
used  chiefly  to  fight  from  and  for  ready  access,  there  would  be 
no  possibility  of  successful  fighting,  and  often  the  lives  of  the 
fire  fighters  would  be  unnecessarily  endangered. 

The  cost  of  these  fire  lines  depends  on  how  they  are  cleared. 
For  ordinary  clearing  the  rates  average  80  to  90  francs  ($15.44 
to  $17.37)  for  the  first  operation  per  hectare  (2.5  acres)  and 
8  to  9  francs  ($1.54  to  $1.74)  per  year  thereafter. 

Location.  —  The  location  of  lines  has  been  around  boundaries, 
along  main  crests,  on  ridges,  and  occasionally  through  large 
forested  areas  following  slopes  or  a  main  divide.  The  chief 
arguments  given  in  favor  of  ridge  fire  lines,  as  opposed  to  slope 
or  valley  lines,  are  that  it  is  easier  and  hence  cheaper  to  clear 
the  scantier  ridge  growth,  less  valuable  ground  is  lost,  there  is 
less  danger  in  checking  a  fire  on  a  ridge,  and  a  ridge  fire  line 
can  often  be  used  as  a  general  patrol  route  and  occasionally 
as  a  logging  road.  AuxiHary  lines  often  follow  roads  or  trails 
on  a  side  slope  or  valley,  but  these  are  designed  more  as  a  pro- 
tection from  the  carelessness  of  travelers  than  as  part  of  the 
general  defense. 

Width.  —  The  width  of  fire  lines  in  Tunisia  varies  from  10 
to  200  metres  (11  to  219  yards).  There  are  also  lines  20,  50, 
and  100  metres  (22,  55,  and  109  yards).  Ordinarily  boundary 
fire  lines  are  narrow;  10  to  20  metres  (11  to  22  yards)  is  con- 
sidered sufficient,  since  the  bordering  land  is  usually  under 
partial  cultivation  or  consists  merely  of  heavily  grazed  brush 
land.  The  widest  line  cleared  —  200  metres  (219  yards)  —  was 
designed  to  separate  two  valuable  forests  in  case  of  a  great  fire. 
Lines  designed  to  divide  the  ordinary  forest  and  isolate  fire  are 
50  metres  (55  yards).  In  the  opinion  of  the  acting  director 
the  most  serviceable  lines  are  40  to  50  metres  (44  to  55  yards). 
In  his  experience  he  has  found  lo-metre  (ii-yard)  lines  too 
narrow  and  200-metre  (218-yard)  lines  too  expensive  to  main- 
tain.    Another  officer  preferred  a  width  of  40  metres  (44  yards) 


30  TUNISIA 

for  a  secondary  line  and  120  (131  yards)  for  an  important  di- 
vision fire  line.  Along  railroad  rights-of-way  the  prescribed 
width  is  20  metres  (22  yards)  from  the  track.  This  belt  must 
be  kept  cleared  of  brush  and  all  coniferous  trees. 

Clearance.  —  Whether  to  merely  cut  the  brush,  or  to  grub  it 
out  by  the  roots;  whether  to  fell  all  trees  on  the  line  or  only 
a  portion;  and  how  often  to  clear  lines,  are  among  the  problems 
of  clearing.  In  actual  practice  most  of  the  lines  are  merely 
brushed  and  healthy  oaks  usually  are  not  felled  when  they  are 
producing  cork  in  merchantable  quantities;  but  as  cork-oak 
trees  become  overmature  they  are  cut  clean  with  the  ground, 
so  that  on  most  lire  lines  there  is  now  rather  a  scattering  growth 
which,  in  the  process  of  time,  will  gradually  disappear  and  give 
way  to  completely  cleared  lines.  In  zeen  oak,  however,  the 
lines  are  often  kept  dense,  since  this  species  keeps  weeds  and 
underbrush  shaded  out.  No  coniferous  species  are  left  on  fire 
lines. 

All  lines  are  cleared  every  three  years  and  the  work  is  so 
arranged  that  the  trail  and  road  maintenance  can  usually  be 
accomplished  under  the  same  contract.  This  arrangement  is 
not  altogether  satisfactory-,  because  of  the  rapid  growth  of  the 
brush  and  weeds.  After  one  season  this  new  growth  seriously 
impairs  the  value  of  the  line;  the  third  year  it  is  badly  in  need 
of  clearing.  To  clean  every  year  or  every  other  year  would 
entail  too  great  an  expense,  so  that  a  compromise  is  made  with 
three-year  intervals  between  brushings.  Under  present  con- 
ditions it  is  usually  necessary  to  clear  a  line  of  defense  along 
the  fire  line  in  case  of  an  approaching  fire,  since  the  fire  would 
otherwise  cross. 

Theoretically,  at  least,  a  better  policy  would  be  to  annually 
clear,^^  say,  one-third  of  the  line  along  its  entire  length,  so  that 
there  would  always  be  an  area  free  from  weeds  and  brush 
to  serve  in  case  of  back  firing,  or  as  a  means  to  stop  a  light 
ground  fire  from  crossing.  The  main  objections  raised  to  this 
plan  was  the  impracticability  of  narrow  lines,  because  of  the 

"  This  scheme  has  never  been  tried  out,  but  was  suggested  by  Forest  Assist- 
ant Charvet  at  Feidja. 


PROTECTION   AGAINST   FIRES   AND   MOVING   SAND  31 

difficulty  of  clearing  a  narrow  strip,  but  it  was  considered  worth 
while  trying  out  on  wide  tire  lines  where  partial  clearance  seemed 
feasible.  If  an  adoption  of  some  such  plan  could  be  effective 
it  would  solve  the  maintenance  problem  of  intensive  fire  hues, 
which  under  the  system  of  triennial  clearance  is  costly  without 
being  entirely  satisfactory. 

Contract  Conditions.  —  Contractors  clearing  lire  lines  are 
governed  by  the  following  rules  :^^  The  boundary  corners  are 
designated  by  the  forest  officers  but  the  contractors  must  at  their 
own  expense  run  the  exterior  boundaries  between  known  corners; 
all  brush  and  trees  must  be  cut  level  with  the  ground;  all  rub- 
bish cut  must  be  disposed  of;  work  must  proceed  systemati- 
cally; the  material  cut  belongs  to  the  contractor  but  it  must 
be  either  carried  away  or  completely  burned  in  small  piles  as 
the  clearing  proceeds;  if  the  burning  cannot  proceed  the  clearing 
will  be  stopped;  a  schedule  of  damage  is  given  for  cork  oak 
injured,  a  16-inch  tree  being  assessed  at  2.40  francs  ($0.46)  if 
just  peeled  for  the  first  time,  1.20  francs  ($23.16)  if  never  peeled, 
but  4.80  francs  ($0.92)  if  fire  killed  in  burning  brush;  in  addi- 
tion it  must  be  felled  even  with  the  ground.  The  basis  for 
contract  payment  is  a  price  per  hectare,  and  the  contractor 
must  furnish  an  account  of  the  area  brushed  each  day,  but  this 
is  checked  by  the  forest  officers  and  deduction  is  made  for  open- 
ings if  they  exceed  5^  of  the  area  brushed.  In  case  the  forest 
is  burned  over  by  fire  owing  to  clearance  the  contractor  receives 
no  pay  whatever  for  work  performed. 

Dune  and  Oasis  Protection.  —  The  protection  of  valuable 
property  from  damage  by  moving  sand  has  been  successful 
both  along  the  coast  line,  as  at  Bizerta,  and  at  desert  oases  as 
at  Nefta,  Tozeur,  El-Hamma.  and  El  Oudian. 

Oases  Protection.  —  In  1885  the  French  Forest  Service 
detailed  Forester  Baraban  to  investigate  the  question  of  fixa- 
tion and  afforestation  of  sand  dunes  of  Tunisia  around  the 
oases.  Baraban  has  shown  that  the  movement  of  the  sand 
dunes  in  Tunisia  is  usually  different  from  that  in   Gascogne. 

'^  Cahier  des  clauses  speciales  pour  les  travaux  et  de  debroussaillemeat  et  de 
protection  contre  I'incendie,  approved  1895. 


32 


TUNISIA 


On  the  shores  of  Gascogne  the  sand  is  brought  to  the  shore  by 
the  tides  and  the  movement  of  the  sand  is  only  in  one  direction  — 
from  west  to  east.  The  dunes  of  Tunisia  are  caused  by  two 
factors.  Some  of  them  are  formed  under  the  influence  of 
wind  from  the  sandy  areas  which  always  exist  in  the  desert 
in  a  mobile  state  or  are  found  on  the  shores  of  the  bays 
and  lakes.  Others  were  caused  by  the  breaking  up  of  the  soil 
through  cultivation  and  grazing,  and  the  wind  that  moves  the 
sand  is  often  from  several  directions  which  then  makes  it  nec- 
essary to  protect  an  oasis  from  all  sides.  In  1886  the  French 
Government  decided  the  work  of  fixing  the  shore  dunes  and 
drifting  sand  around  the  oases  a  public  necessity. 

The  oases:  Gabes,  Tozeur,  Nefta,  as  well  as  the  fixation  of 
the  shore  dunes  near  Bizerta  and  Cap  Bon,  have  been  considered 
among  the  most  urgent  ones.  The  fixation  of  the  sand  areas 
around  the  oasis  Nefta  may  be  considered  as  typical  for  the 
southern  part  of  Tunisia.  After  many  failures  the  Forest 
Service  has  worked  out  a  satisfactory  method  of  stopping  and 
reclaiming  the  moving  sand.  The  sandy  area  around  the  oasis 
Nefta  which  was  to  be  reclaimed  occupied  an  area  of  420  hec- 
tares (1038  acres),  while  the  area  of  gardens  after  the  com- 
pletion of  the  reclamation  work  reached  an  area  of  800  hectares 
(1977  acres).  Reclaiming  the  sand  dunes  around  the  oasis  Nefta 
cost  the  government  during  the  first  ten  years  close  to  60,000 
francs  ($12,000).  At  present  the  annual  cost  of  maintaining 
the  plantations  and  keeping  the  fences  in  repair  is  about  3000 
francs  ($600)  a  year,  not  including  the  cost  of  protection.  The 
value  of  some  of  the  oases  may  be  appreciated  from  the  fact 
that  at  the  oasis  Nefta  there  are  growing  240,000  date  palms,  not 
counting  other  crops.  The  palm  plantations  extend  for  a  length 
of  9  kilometres  (5.5  miles)  from  east  to  west  and  have  a  width  of 
about  2  kilometres  (1.2  miles).  The  oasis  Tozeur  has  an  area 
of  400  hectares  (988  acres)  and  has  218,000  date  palms  which 
yield  8,500,000  kilograms  (18,739,260  pounds)  of  dates. 

At  the  oases  the  general  principles  of  dune  protection  apply, 
but  the  detailed  methods  ^^  used  are  modified  to  conform  with 

"  Based  in  part  upon  a  description  in  the  Indicateur  Tunisien,  1912. 


PROTECTION   AGAINST   FIRES   AND    MOVING   SAND 


33 


the  different  conditions  encountered.  The  damage  to  oases  has 
resulted  (i)  from  sand  drifting  from  a  distance,  (2)  from  local 
overgrazing,  and  (3)  from  erosion. 

Where  the  drifting  sand  is  blown  from  a  distance  no  perma- 
nent relief  can  be  hoped  for  unless  the  direction  of  the  wind 
changes.  In  this  case  the  damage  is  uniformly  from  one  direc- 
tion and  the  drifting  sand  can  be  rendered  harmless  by  proper 
protection.  When  the  sand  appears  merely  as  a  result  of  local 
overgrazing  disintegrating  a  friable  soil,  it  can  be  readily  pre- 


FiG.  7.  —  Typical  sand  wall  topped  with  date-palm  branches  in  use  at 
Tozeur,  southern  Tunisia. 


vented  by  excluding  all  stock  from  a  protective  zone,  but  until 
the  soil  is  healed  by  grass  and  weeds  the  damage  is  more  dif- 
ficult to  control,  because  the  direction  of  the  local  winds  is  not 
uniform.  The  erosion  is  prevented  or  diminished  by  contour 
ditches  and  by  sand  dams,  where  gullies  have  already  been 
washed. 

The  typical  desert  oasis  in  southern  Tunisia  is  not  a  mere 
spring  in  the  desert,  but,  in  reality,  a  rich  date-palm  farm  hun- 
dreds of  acres  in  area,  whose  ownership  is  shared  by  the  resi- 
dents of  bordering  villages.     The  water  for  irrigation  flows  from 


34  TUNISIA 

not  one  spring  but  from  fifty  to  a  hundred  or  more  at  the  per- 
imeter of  the  oases.  Therefore,  any  system  of  protection 
against  sand,  however  costly,  is  fully  justified  because  of  the 
value  of  the  property  to  be  protected. 

The  work  of  protection  was  commenced  in  1885,  and,  accord- 
ing to  an  official  statement,^^  2139  hectares  (5285  acres)  have 
been  placed  under  control  at  the  following  oases:  Gabes,  76 
(187  acres);  Tozeur,  539  (1331  acres);  Nefta,  426  (1052  acres); 
El-Hamma,  98  (242  acres);  El-Ouidan,  180  (444  acres);  and 
Nefzaona,  8201  hectares  (20,264  acres).  Up  to  January  i,  1911, 
the  cost  of  this  protection  had  aggregated  465,000  francs 
($89,745).  Labor  is  paid  from  1.20  to  1.30  francs  ($0.23  to 
$0.25)  per  day  of  10  hours. 

Sand  Drifting  from  a  Distance.  —  Where  damage  results 
through  sand  drifting  from  a  distance  it  may  be  assumed  at 
once  that  the  direction  of  the  wind  is  uniform.  To  prevent 
such  damage,  when  there  is  a  sufficient  open  area  in  front  of  the 
oasis,  sand  dams  are  built  some  300  metres  (328  yards)  from 
the  edge  of  the  cultivated  land.  While  in  theory  this  outer  line 
of  defense  should  be  as  far  away  as  possible,  in  practice  the  dis- 
tance is  usually  curtailed  by  the  character  of  the  ground,  or  by 
the  extra  expense  of  erecting  a  longer  line  of  defense  due  to  a 
greater  circumference.  Often,  too,  the  construction  material, 
as  palm  branches,  for  example,  is  limited,  since  it  must  be  secured 
locally. 

A  second  or  third  line  of  defense  may  be  necessary  to  stop  the 
sand  which  blows  over  the  first  wall.  The  area  between  this 
wall  and  the  fields  is  closed  to  entry  and  caravan  roads  are 
fenced  to  confine  travel  to  the  least  possible  area.  These  areas 
are  enclosed  by  sand  walls  0.80  of  a  metre  (31  inches)  high  topped 
by  a  close  palm  branch  hedge  0.40  to  0.50  metres  (16  to  20  inches) 
high  and  buried  0.25  to  0.30  metres  (10  to  12  inches)  in  the  ground. 
This  is  the  standard  fence  at  the  Djerid  oases.  It  must  be 
repaired  at  least  once  a  year  and  always  after  severe  storms. 

The  best  time  to  build  these  sand  fences  is  when  the  sand  is 
moist,  so  that  it  can  be  packed  hard  to  prevent  its  being  drifted 
11  Based  in  part  upon  a  description  in  the  Indicateur  Tunisien,  1912. 


PROTECTION   AGAINST   FIRES   AND   MOVING   SAND  35 

by  the  wind.  Occasionally  it  is  necessary  to  cover  the  walls 
with  layers  of  palms  to  hold  the  dry  sand  in  place.  According 
to  an  official  inspection  report  it  is  necessary  either  to  peri- 
odically raise  the  outside  defense  hedge,  to  accumulate  as  great 
an  amount  of  sand  as  possible  and  thus  form  a  thoroughly  stable 
dune  which  serves  also  as  a  permanent  windbreak;  or  else  to 
build  a  cordon  of  brush  at  the  foot  of  this  dune,  in  the  process 
of  formation,  in  order  to  make  the  sand  pile  up  into  a  rather 
low  plateau  which  would  serve  as  a  base  for  a  great  protective 
dune.  In  other  words,  the  wind  itself  is  harnessed  to  pile  up 
a  sufficient  mass  of  sand,  as  a  barrier  to  prevent  drifting,  by 
first  building  a  sand  wall  at  right  angles  to  the  wind,  topped 
with  a  palm  leaf  hedge  which  holds  the  particles  of  sand;  then, 
when  this  is  buried,  the  operation  is  repeated  and  the  dune 
raised  to  the  necessary  height. 

Sand  Drifting  from  Local  Overgrazing.  —  Where  the  soil 
immediately  bordering  an  oasis  has  been  disintegrated  by  over- 
grazing the  resulting  damage  can  be  readily  overcome  by  form- 
ing a  protective  zone  closed  to  stock.  This  area  is  fenced  with 
sand  walls  similar  to  those  described  above,  occasionally  sup- 
plemented by  barbed  wire.  When  protected,  the  soil,  dry  as  it 
is,  quickly  reseeds;  the  resulting  sod  will  prevent  all  drifting. 
After  the  movement  of  sand  has  been  stopped,  there  often 
appear  the  following  spring  some  of  the  native  grasses  such  as 
Retama  raetam,  Aristida  pugens,  Limoniastrum  guyonianum, 
Atriplex  halimus,  Nitraria  tridentata,  peganum  Harmale, 
Zygophyllum  album,  Calligonum  comosum,  together  with 
Euphorbia  guyoniana  and  Euphorbia  blasamifera.  These 
grasses  which  are  native  of  the  desert,  particularly  Aristida 
pugens,  are  often  artificially  sown  as  soon  as  the  movement  of 
sand  has  stopped. 

The  shrubs  which  are  being  used  for  reclaiming  the  mo\dng 
sand  areas  in  the  deserts  are  Tamarix  africana  and  Tamarix 
articulata.  At  first  it  was  thought  that  Tamarix  africana, 
being  of  local  origin,  would  grow  particularly  well.  The  practice 
of  several  years,  however,  has  shown  that  winds  often  injure  its 
young  shoots  and  the  summer  heat  dries  out  the  soil  to  a  depth 


36  TUNISIA 

greater  than  its  roots  are  capable  of  reaching  within  the  iirst 
few  years  after  planting.  At  present  Tamarix  africana  is  used 
for  planting  only  on  those  portions  of  the  dunes  which  are  capable 
of  retaining  some  moisture  during  the  summer.  Experiments 
are  also  being  carried  on  with  other  drought-resistant  species, 
particularly  with  Acacia  eburnea,  Acacia  decurrens,  and 
Acacia  tortilis,  of  which  the  latter  grows  naturally  in  the 
valley  of  Thalah.  This  species  resists  droughty  years,  since 
its  roots  penetrate  deep  into  the  ground.  During  the  first 
year,  however,  this  acacia  starts  with  difficulty  and  requires 
repeated  watering  so  that  its  cultivation  over  large  areas  is 
impracticable.  The  Forest  Service  is  also  conducting  experi- 
ments with  Parkinsonia  aculeata,  a  tropical  shrub  which  origi- 
nates from  the  deserts  of  South  America,  and  also  with  Tamarix 
articulata  which,  so  far,  have  given  good  results. 

On  the  shore  dunes  to  the  east  of  the  city  of  Bizerta  the  sow- 
ing of  Imperata  cyHndrica,  Ricinus  communis  (native),  and  of 
Tamarix  made  under  cover  of  brush  gave  good  results.  Other 
species,  such  as  Acacia,  Eucalyptus,  Casuarina,  and  also  Pinus 
halipensis  and  Pinus  maritima,  have  been  tried  but  without 
success. 

When,  owing  to  the  looseness  or  mobility  of  the  sand,  the 
roots  of  the  natural  growth  are  bared  by  the  wind,  it  may  be 
temporarily  held  in  place  with  a  brush  cover.  But  frequently 
despite  all  precautions,  the  natural  regeneration  does  not  get 
a  hold  when  once  destroyed  by  overgrazing. 

Erosion.  —  On  the  short  steep  slopes  of  the  spring  basins, 
as  well  as  on  the  reserved  areas  where  the  surface  becomes  so 
caked  that  the  water  cannot  be  absorbed,  dangerous  erosion 
has  taken  place.  This  fills  the  springs  with  sand  in  considerable 
quantities  and  decreases  their  flow.  When  once  a  ravine  has 
been  formed,  every  torrential  rainfall  causes  serious  damage. 
Any  measures  designed  to  prevent  this  erosion  must  keep  the 
water  from  these  downpours  from  collecting  in  large  quantities 
and  from  flowing  in  any  volume.  To  accomplish  this  it  must 
filter  into  the  soil,  a  process  facilitated  by  plowing  the  requisite 
number    of   horizontal    ditches,    aligned   exactly   on    contours. 


PROTECTION   AGAINST   FIRES   AND    MOVING   SAND  37 

These  ditches  must  be  at  least  60  centimetres  (24  inches)  deep, 
and  the  sand  of  the  lower  wall  must  be  packed  or  pounded 
to  prevent  erosion  by  the  winds.  The  theory  of  spacing  the 
ditches  is  oflficially  described  as  follows: 

"The  horizontal  spacing  of  the  two  ditches  will  be  such  that 

the  amount  of  water  falling  between  the  ditch  above  and  the 

ditch  below  can  be  entirely  reservoired  in  the  lower  ditch; 

for  example,  for  a  fall  of  25  miUimetres  (0.97  inch),  taking 

the  maximum  fall  for  Tozeur,  it  would  be  necessary  that  the 

distance  L  between  the  two  ditches  should  be  given  by  L  ^ 

0.025  =  S  {S  being  the  cross  section  of  the  plowed  furrow). 

If  the  ditch  has  a  depth  of  60  centimetres  (24  inches)  and  a 

.     c-       o-6o  X  0.6  0 

width  of  60  centimetres  its  section  is  6  = =0.18 

2 

or  L  =  ^'^  =  7  metres  (23  feet)  more  or  less. 
0.025 
"It  thence  results  that  all  the  water  will  be  retained  on  the 
surface  of  the  soil,  until  it  sinks  into  the  sand  in  the  bottom 
of  the  ditches,  bringing  quantities  of  seed  which,  placed  under 
the  most  favorable  conditions,  ought  to  germinate  the  more 
readily.  It  must  be  carefully  seen  to  that  the  ahgnment  of 
the  ditches  should  be  exactly  horizontal;  if  not,  the  water 
collects  at  one  point  on  the  ditch,  overruns  the  bank,  and 
the  damage  is  worse  than  if  nothing  had  been  done." 

This  is  the  theory  of  the  operation;  in  actual  practice  the 
ditches  soon  become  partially  filled  with  sand  and  have  to  be 
deepened  to  prevent  the  water  from  overflowing.  Nor  does 
the  seeding  take  place  naturally  as  often  as  might  be  wished. 

"In  the  case  of  ravines  which  are  (already)  eroded,  it  is 
necessary  at  the  start  to  partially  fill  them  up,  usually  until 
the  side  walls  are  vertical;  profiting  by  the  facihty  with  which 
the  soil  can  be  worked,  it  is  necessary  to  cave  these  walls 
into  the  ravine  ...  in  order  to  obtain  a  new  profile  which 
is  well  rounded  .  .  .  where  one  can  estabUsh  several  cor- 
dons of  brush  to  diminish  the  velocity  of  the  water.  In  the 
bottom  of  this  rax'ine,  in  part  corrected,  dams  should  be 
built  of  palm  tree  trunks,  .  .  .  near  together,  each  built 
of  two  palm  trees  split  horizontally  .  .  .  ;  when  these 
dams,  which  may  easily  be  destroyed,  appear  insufficient, 
there  is  nothing  to  do  but  to  increase  them " 


38 


TUNISIA 


But  any  system  of  dams  has  proved  unsuccessful  unless  the 
supply  of  water  has  been  greatly  diminished  by  cutting  off  the 
flood  water  supply.  This  is  accomplished  by  building  contour 
ditches  heading  up  to  the  edges  of  the  ravines. 

At  El-Hamma  both  the  Roads  Department  and  the  Forest 
Service  have  protected  slopes  from  erosion,  but  by  different 
methods.  The  work  of  the  former  has  not  been  successful. 
The  methods  of  the  roads  department  has  been  to  cover  a  slope 
with  diamond-shaped  cordons  of  brush  tied  to  anchor  stakes 
(see  Fig.  8).  The  brush  is  spaced  1.2  by  2.1  metres  (4  by  7 
feet)  and  o.i  to  0.15  metres  (4  to  6  inches)  high  with  stakes  every 


^^ 

e*^i^-^^^% 

■  "*^^ 

Fig. 


Method  of  protection  against  erosion  at  El-Hamma. 


0.35  metres  (14  inches).  This  protective  cover  does  not  prevent 
erosion,  since  the  water  flows  underneath  the  brush  and  soon 
cuts  out  a  small  ravine.  On  an  even  more  difficult  45°  slope 
the  local  ranger  has  tried  another  plan  which  merits  success. 
The  project  is  designed  to  protect  an  important  spring  used  for 
watering  camel  caravans,  as  well  as  for  irrigation.  This  scheme, 
which  is  shown  in  Fig.  9,  consists  of  a  series  of  parallel  artificial 
hedges  built  on  contour  3  to  4  metres  (3  to  4  yards)  apart. 
The  hedge  is  of  tamerisk,  40  cm.  (16  inches)  above  the  ground, 


PROTECTION   AGAINST   FIRES    AND    MOVING    SAND  39 


Fig.  9.  —  Protection  against 


ibove  springs  at  El-Hamma. 


40  TUNISIA 

and  set  25  cm.  (10  inches)  deep.  It  is  strengthened  by  posts 
every  1.2  metres  (4  feet)  and  smaller  posts  or  stays  every 
5  to  8  metres  (6  to  9  yards).  The  hedge  is  wired  on  each  side 
and  the  wires  joined.  The  sand  washed  down  on  these  hedges 
is  retained,  and  forms  a  series  of  horizontal  paths  or  shallow 
ditches,  one  above  the  other,  to  retain  the  water.  The  work 
costs  at  a  rate  of  50  centimetres  ($0.10)  per  running  metre 
(i  yard). 

At  El-Oudian  still  another  method  is  used  to  protect  the 
springs.  There  the  ditches  are  designed  to  carry  off  the  sur- 
plus water  to  a  point  where  it  will  do  no  harm.  The  slope 
is  steeper  than  at  Tozeur,  but  not  so  vertical  as  at  El-Hamma. 

Besides  mere  protective  works,  the  Forest  Service  has  experi- 
mented in  the  matter  of  plantations,  but  they  have  not  as  yet 
been  successful,  except  where  they  could  be  irrigated.  The 
only  tree  (small  and  crooked  at  best)  which  seems  to  come  in 
naturally  on  the  edges  of  the  desert  is  the  tamerisk  (africana). 
The  best  shrub  seems  to  be  the  retem  and  the  best  grass  the 
alfa.  The  tamerisk  can  be  reproduced  by  shoots  30  cm.  (11.8 
inches)  long  and  placed  28  cm.  (11  inches)  in  the  sand;  but  on 
an  area  of  several  acres  recently  every  shoot  thus  set  had  died. 

The  following  official  statement  of  the  problem  is  perhaps  too 
optimistic: 

"  ...  The  Forest  Service  tries  to  cover  the  zones  of 
protection  with  tree  species,  but  has  met  in  this  respect  serious 
difficulties.  The  annual  rainfall  is  only  a  few  centimetres, 
sometimes  almost  nothing.  The  species  to  be  grown  must, 
besides,  withstand  the  burning  sirocos  which  blow  during  the 
summer.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary  that  the  fibres  be  as 
tough  as  leather  and  small,  to  lessen  evaporation,  a  charac- 
teristic of  all  desert  plants.  The  land  to  be  restocked  can 
not  be  irrigated  and  sprinkling  is  only  possible  on  restricted 
areas  for  fear  of  high  costs." 

Strange  to  say,  some  of  the  railroad  right-of-way  area  in 
Tunisia  has  been  sown  to  aleppo  pine,  an  inflammable  species; 
but  most  of  the  planting  has  been  with  eucalyptus,  which  has 
done  remarkably  well  where  there  was  sufficient  water.  On 
dry  ground  the  trees  were  spindling  and  of  little  value. 


FORESTATION   AND    BETTERMENTS  41 


FORESTATION    AND   BETTERMENTS 

Government  Forestation  Policy.  —  The  government's  atti- 
tude ^^  is  favorable  to  artificial  regeneration  only  so  far  as  is 
necessary  to  complete  small  blanks  in  a  revenue-producing 
forest.  Instead  of  planting  or  sowing,  the  policy  is  to  pre- 
serve and  improve  existing  forests  by  the  gradual  restriction 
of  harmful  grazing,  by  very  conservative  cutting,  and  by  the 
erection  of  dams  to  conserve  moisture,  not  only  in  the  soil  but 
in  the  air  as  well.  Occasionally  it  has  been  possible  to  wound 
the  soil,  on  ground  where  natural  regeneration  has  been  de- 
ficient, in  order  to  assist  germination.  The  two  most  expensive 
planting  areas  are  for  watershed  protection  and  for  cHmatic  and 
recreation  purposes. 

In  theory  resinous  species  are  to  be  avoided,  because  of  the 
fire  menace;  but  in  practice  more  aleppo  pine  has  been  sown 
or  planted  than  any  other  species,  because  it  is  found  locally 
and  because  it  withstands  droughts.  The  wild  oHve,  holm  oak, 
carob-tree,  pifion  pine,  thuya,  and  eucalyptus  (chiefly  globulus) 
have  also  been  employed.  The  ohve  withstands  drought  better 
than  any  other  species  and  sprouts  very  readily  after  being 
dried  out.  The  holm  oak  requires  slightly  better  moisture 
conditions.  The  carab  tree  withstands  drought  well  and  pro- 
duces a  leafy  bush  like  a  tree  which  shelters  the  soil.  The 
thuya  is  excellent  for  dry  soils  but  grows  very  lowly.  The  pinon 
produces  an  edible  seed  and  for  this  reason  encourages  trespass 
by  the  natives.  The  eucalyptus  can  only  be  used  on  moist 
ground  or  where  the  subsoil  is  moist;  no  species  of  eucalyptus 
has  been  found  which  will  withstand  droughts  unless  the  roots 
can  penetrate  the  subsoil  water. 

Seed  Spots.  —  The  seed-spot  method  of  sowing  is  almost 
invariably  used;  broadcasting  or  unprepared  soil  is  never  prac- 
ticed except  with  aleppo  pine  immediately  after  a  fire  and, 
thus  far,  even  in  that  case,  merely  for  experimental  purposes. 

'5  These  conclusions  are  based  on  a  conference  with  the  acting  Director,  M. 
Delacourcelle.  The  description  of  methods  in  use  is  based  on  field  inspections 
at  Hammam-Lif  and  Zaghouan. 


42  TUNISIA 

The  seed  spots  are  ordinarily  30  cm.  by  30  cm.  (12  by  12  inches) 
and  30  cm.  (12  inches)  deep  whether  for  sowing  or  planting. 
For  the  olive  larger  spots  are  used,  often  60  by  60  cm.  (23  by 
23  inches). 

Stock.  —  There  is  more  sowing  than  planting,  but  if  the 
sowing  is  unsuccessful  the  soil-field  seed  spots  are  immediately 
planted  before  they  run  wild.  The  aleppo  pine  is  sown  7  to  8 
seeds  to  the  spot,  and  for  fail  places  or  very  difficult  ground 
8-month  seedKngs,  grown  in  terra  cotta  pots,  are  fall  planted. 
At  Hammam-Lif  the  ohve  suckers  were  left  two  years  in  the 
nursery  and  then  field  planted.  The  pinon  and  thuya  are 
sown.  The  oak  is  sown  in  bamboo  tubes  to  protect  it  from 
rodents.  The  carob-tree  is  sown.  The  eucalyptus  is  fall 
planted  after  being  grown  in  pots  for  7  to  8  months.  No  trans- 
planted stock  is  used. 

All  field  sowing  or  planting  is  mainly  in  the  fall  (December 
to  January),  after  the  winter  rains  have  commenced.  The 
soil  is  then  in  the  best  possible  condition,  so  that  the  plants 
can  make  sufficient  headway  to  survive  the  dry  summer  months. 

Spacing.  —  In  order  to  keep  the  expense  of  forestation  as 
low  as  possible  wide  spacing  is  used.  The  seed  spots  are  usually 
irregularly  located,  so  as  to  give  the  best  possible  chances  for 
success  and  while  the  spacing  is  nominally  1.8  to  2.4  metres 
(6  to  8  feet)  in  practice  there  are  rarely  more  than  250  spots 
per  acre. 

Field  Technique.  —  On  very  dry  situations  the  olive  shoots 
may  have  to  be  watered,  when  planted,  in  order  to  give  them 
a  start,  but  of  course  this  is  out  of  the  question  for  ordinary 
forest  plantations.  After  sowing  or  planting,  the  surface  is  left 
7.6  to  12.6  centimetres  (3  to  5  inches)  below  the  soil  surface,  in 
order  to  hold  the  rains  and  let  the  water  sink  in.  Yet  on  side 
hills  many  of  these  small  spots  are  washed  level  with  soil  after 
the  first  winter  rains,  and  this  leaves  the  plants  too  deeply  im- 
bedded. Where  losses  from  drought  are  anticipated,  two  or 
three  small  rocks  are  placed  at  each  side  of  the  plant  to  con- 
serve the  moisture  and  prevent  surface  drying. 

At  Zaghouan  loss  has  been  experienced  because  the  center  of 


FORESTATION  AND   BETTERMENTS  43 

the  seed  spot,  comprising  the  soil  which  has  been  worked,  dries 
out;  this  is  due  to  the  soft  center  earth  shrinking  and  losing 
contact  with  the  walls  of  the  spot.  To  prevent  this,  the  earth, 
when  replaced  in  the  hole,  must  be  firmly  stamped.  After 
sowing  aleppo  pine  at  Zaghouan  the  excess  seedlings  are  de- 
stroyed, for  the  extra  stock,  it  is  thought,  would  merely  use  up 
the  little  available  moisture.  All  nursery  stock  is  grown  locally, 
since  shipped  stock  when  tried  has  invariably  given  poor  results. 

Nursery  Methods.  —  Both  the  nurseries  at  Hammam-Lif 
and  at  Zaghouan  are  watered  during  the  hot  dry  summers. 
Irrigation  is  carried  out  every  10  to  15  days,  and  is  then  mod- 
erate. At  the  Zaghouan  nursery  the  pots  used  are  115  milli- 
metres (4.5  inches)  deep,  128  millimetres  (5  inches)  wide  at  the 
top,  and  58  millimetres  (2  inches)  at  the  bottom.  The  pot  is 
drained  by  a  6-milHmetre  (|-inch)  hole.  After  the  ball  plant  is 
removed  the  pots  are  collected  and  used  over  again.  No  arti- 
ficial shade  frames  are  built;  instead,  Indian  corn  is  sown  be- 
tween the  seedling  beds,  to  protect  the  plants  during  dry  weather. 
This  corn  grows  to  be  1.5  metres  (7  yards)  high  and  serves  as 
a  natural  protection.  Before  sowing  the  oak  acorns  in  the 
field  they  are  first  germinated  in  wet  sand,  then  placed  in  the 
bamboo  tubes  at  the  nursery,  and  immediately  planted.  In 
the  past,  a  cement-walled  seed  bed  was  used  to  protect  seed 
sown  from  loss  by  rodents.  Before  sowing  the  aleppo  pine  the 
seed  is  soaked  in  water  for  at  least  an  hour;  otherwise  the  usual 
nursery  methods  are  followed. 

Failures.  —  The  forestation  on  arid,  difficult  land  can  be 
accomplished  only  by  persistent  effort.  Repeated  failures  and 
severe  loss  are  to  be  expected.  The  percentage  of  success 
seems  to  be  dependent  entirely  on  whether  the  season  following 
the  planting  is  favorable  as  regards  rainfall,  for  with  an  un- 
favorable season  even  well-executed  plantations  may  show  a 
loss  of  from  80  to  95  per  cent. 

Improvements.  —  As  in  Algeria  (see  page  89)  the  forest 
houses  are  constructed  of  stone,  and  are  ordinarily  faced  with 
cement.  But  in  Tunisia  there  are  no  uniform  plans,  although 
the  arrangement  of  the  stables  and  floor  space  is  similar.     A 


44 


TUNISIA 


FORESTATION   AND   BETTERMENTS  45 

plan^^  is  given  in  Fig.  10  which  has  been  worked  out  after  thorough 
trial  as  being  eminently  satisfactory  for  a  forest  guard's  house. 
Every  house  is  furnished  by  the  Service,  and  a  room  is  always 
held  in  readiness  for  visitors.  The  official  inventory  Hsts  fur- 
nishings under  i,  numerical  order;  2,  date;  3,  kind  of  article; 
4,  summary  description;  5,  where  purchased;  6,  when  first 
used;  7,  original  value;  8,  condition,  with  four  columns  for 
the  entry  of  the  results  of  different  inspections;  and  9,  remarks. 
At  Djebel  Mansaur  the  cost  of  the  standard  equipment  totaled 
419  francs  ($80.87),  and  included:  sheets,  pillow  cases,  table 
cloth,  towels,  covers,  blanket,  folding  chairs,  tables,  wash 
stand,  commode,  carpets,  mirror,  basin,  pitchers,  pails,  bed- 
stead, buffet,  desk,  kitchen  stove,  glasses,  candlestick,  and 
field  medical  chest.  All  of  these  articles  are  for  the  use  of 
visiting  officers.  In  the  United  States  the  Government  fur- 
nishes only  a  few  of  them. 

A  detailed  policy  has  been  developed  to  govern  the  use  of 
ranger  stations.  The  essentials  of  this  scheme  are  as  follows: 
they  may  be  used  at  any  time  by  authorized  persons,  but  visitors 
must  be  reported  by  name,  hour  and  date  of  arrival  and  depart- 
ure, and  hospitality  must  not  interfere  with  official  work,  nor 
can  it  be  offered  ordinarily  for  longer  than  24  hours  at  a  time. 
The  rates  are  posted  in  each  room:  lodging,  i  franc  ($0,193) 
first  night  and  0.50  ($0.10)  second  night;  breakfast  of  coffee  and 
bread,  0.50  ($0.10);  other  meals  2  francs  ($0.39);  horse  feed 
0.60  ($0.11).  At  these  ranger  stations  the  visitor  is  invariably 
accorded  a  warm  welcome  and  the  meals,  often  prepared  on 
short  notice,  are  surprisingly  good. 

i^  Furniohed  by  Forest  Assistant  Charvet 


CHAPTER  III 
ALGERIA ' 

Physical  and  Climatic  Features  (p.  46) :  General,  Topography,  Climate. 

Progress  in  Forest  Administration  (p.  49):  Forest  Situation — General,  Jonnart's 
Reforms,  Work  of  Jonnart's  Commission,  Administration  Changes. 

Forest  Conditions  (p.  54):  The  Forests,  The  Most  Important  Trees,  Destruc- 
tion of  Forests  —  Causes,  Extent  of  Forests,  Settlement  Policy,  Forest 
Statistics,  Production. 

Forest  Management  (p.  58):  Objects  of  Forest  Management,  Cork -oak  Man- 
agement, Cultural  Rules,  Aleppo  Pine,  Treatment,  Treatment  of  Other 
Species. 

Working  Plans  (p.  66) :  A  Working  Plan  for  Cork  Oak,  Management  Record. 

Disposal  of  Produce  (p.  72):  Sales,  Free  Use. 

The  Forestation  Problem  (p.  77):  Forestation,  Methods,  Forestation  Routine, 
Experimental  Planting,  Forestation  Projects. 

Miscellaneous  Activities  (p.  87):  Research,  Forest  Museum,  Grazing,  Forest 
Houses,  Trespass. 

Fire  Protection  and  Control  (p.  91):  Fire  Protection,  Preventive  Measures, 
Fire  Lines,  Back-firing,  Fire  Lines  —  Conclusions. 

Administrative  Organization  (p.  loi):  Forest  Organization,  The  Directions, 
The  Chefferies,  Statistical,  The  Controller,  Reforestation  Service,  In  Time 
of  War,  Salaries,  Bonus  on  Algerian  Service,  Employees  Classified  by  Length 
of  Service,  Promotions  —  Discipline. 

Forest  Legislation  (p.  109):  Legislation,  The  New  Code. 


PHYSICAL  AND   CLIMATIC   FEATURES 

General.  —  As  in  the  case  of  Tunisia,  so  also  in  approaching 
the  study  of  Algerian  forest  administration  proper,  a  short 
description  of  the  topography  and  climate  is  prefaced,  for 
these  factors  determine,  of  course,  in  large  measures,  the  char- 
acter of  native  forest  conditions  and  needs. 

It  remains  only  to  add  here  that  Algeria,  since  1858,  has  been 
a  French  colony,  now  under  the  administration  of  a  governor 

^  The  problems  in  Algeria  and  Tunisia  are  somewhat  similar  and  to  avoid 
needless  duplication  only  the  most  interesting  features  of  each  forest  adminis- 
tration have  been  described. 

46 


PHYSICAL  AND    CLIMATIC   FEATURES  47 

appointed  by  the  President  of  the  Republic;  and  that  it  has  for 
its  boundaries  the  Sahara  desert  on  the  south,  on  the  east  Tunisia, 
on  the  north  the  Mediterranean,  and  on  the  west  Morocco. 

Algeria  occupies  an  area  of  about  456,000  square  kilometres 
(176,000  square  miles). 

Topography.  —  Topographically  Algeria  is  divided  into  four 
regions:  The  Tell  Atlas,  the  Hauts-Plateaux,  the  Sahara  Atlas, 
and  the  Sahara. 

According  to  an  authoritative  source  these  regions  are: 

''I.  The  Tell  Atlas  (Atlas  Tellien),  the  most  important 
part  of  this  territory,  consists  of  two  parallel  ranges  of  folded 
hills  of  recent  origin,  which  intersect  a  great  basin  stretching 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Bay  of  Tunis.  The  highest  points 
of  range  next  the  coast  are  the  Traras,  11,359  metres  (3727 
feet);  the  Dahra,  1579  metres  (5181  feet);  the  Atlas  of  Blida, 
1629  metres  (5345  feet);  the  Jurjura  Chain,  2307.8  metres 
(7552  feet)  in  Great  Kabylia;  and  the  Babor  range, 
2034.4  metres  (6675  feet)  in  Little  KabiHa.  In  the  interior 
rises  the  Tlemcen  Group,  1843  metres  (6047  feet);  the 
Ouarsenis,  1984  metres  (6512  feet);  the  Jebel  Dira,  1809.8 
metres  (5938  feet);  and  the  Hodna  Mountains,  1862.8 
metres  (61 12  feet),  which  last  form  the  only  considerable 
link  between  the  Tell  and  the  Sahara  Atlas.  The  Littoral, 
842  metres  (920  yards)  in  length,  with  long,  precipitous 
and  almost  inaccessible  stretches,  is  broken  by  the  bays  of 
Oran,  Arzew,  Algiers,  Bougie,  Philippeville,  and  Bona,  but 
does  not  possess  a  single  good  natural  harbor.  Flank- 
ing the  coast,  in  front  of  the  Tell  Atlas,  are  several  ranges 
of  lower  hill  (Sahel),  as  the  Sahel  of  Oran,  between  Lourmel 
and  the  mouth  of  the  Chelifif,  the  Sahel  of  Algiers,  and  the 
Sahel  of  Collo,  while  the  Edough  Group,  1007.9  metres  (3307 
feet),  composed  of  crystalline  rock,  forms  an  independent 
mountain.  The  extensive  plains  behind  the  Sahels,  which  at 
Oran  are  marshy  (Marais  de  la  Macta)  and  have  besides  the 
remains  of  great  salt  lagoons,  Sebkha  d'Oran  and  Salines 
d'Arzew,  and  especially  the  Mitidja  near  Algiers,  once  a  bay 
of  the  sea,  and  the  Plaine  de  Bone  are  the  most  fertile  and 
richly  cultivated  parts  of  Algeria.  Tell  region  embraces  an 
area  of  14,000,000  hectares  (35,000,000  acres). 

"II.  High  Plateau.  —  The  Hauts-Plateaux  or  Great  Steppe, 
an  almost  unwatered  region,  of  about  eleven  million  hectares, 


ii.  C.  State  College 

48  ALGERIA 

was  originally  a  deep  depression  between  the  Tell  and  the 
Sahara  Atlas,  which  in  the  course  of  thousands  of  years  was 
gradually  filled  up  with  the  alluvial  deposits  of  mountain- 
torrents  and  thus  converted  into  a  great  and  monotonous 
undulating  plain  701  to  1005.7  metres  (2300  to  3300  feet)  above 
the  sea  level.  The  saHne  and  gypseous  is  very  sterile  and 
only  at  a  few  places  is  adapted  for  the  culture  of  grain,  but  has 
proved  suitable  for  sheep-grazing.  In  the  depressions  of  the 
steppe  lie  a  number  of  extensive  shoots  or  salt  lakes,  which 
in  summer  are  dry  and  recognizable  only  by  their  dazzHng 
snow-white  incrustation. 

''III.  The  Sahara  Atlas  (Atlas  Saharien)  forms  the  great 
barrier  between  Algeria  and  the  desert.  It  is  a  '  region  of 
grand  and  wildly  fissured  gorges,  partly  caused  by  erosion 
in  the  plu\ial  period,  of  valleys  worn  by  torrents,  of  lofty 
plains  converted  into  mountains,  and  of  marine  basins  now 
filled  up.'  (Theob.  Fischer.)  The  chief  heights  are  the 
Montagnes  des  Ksour,  2134.7  metres  (7004  feet),  a  pro- 
longation of  the  much  higher  Morocco  Atlas;  Jebel  Amour, 
1971  metres  (6467  feet);  the  Monts  des  Ouled-Nail,  1613 
metres  (5295  feet);  and,  beyond  the  depression  of  the  Monts 
du  Zab,  131 1.4  metres  (4304  feet);  the  Aures  Mountains, 
2326.7  metres  (7634  feet),  which  are  wooded  in  their  north 
half.    .    .    . 

"IV.  The  Sahara,  which  belongs  to  the  Territoires  du  Sud 
or  de  Commandement,  governed  by  the  mihtary  'Bureaux 
Arabes,'  consists  of  the  Bassin  du  Gourara  or  Bassin  de 
rOued  Saoura  on  the  west,  a  plateau  100.6  to  792.4  metres 
(330  to  2600  feet)  above  the  sea,  and  of  the  Bassin  du  Melrir, 
named  after  the  Chott  Melrir,  on  the  east,  lying  partly 
below  the  sea  level." 

Climate. — ^  The  climate^  is  characterized  by  two  distinct 
seasons,^  one  wet  and  one  dry,  a  peculiarity  due  largely  to  the 
nature  of  the  winds.  The  prevailing  winds  during  the  rainy 
winter  season  come  from  the  northwest  and  north,  while  dur- 
ing the  summer  east  winds  are  prevalent.  Purely  local  winds 
due  to  topography  or  environment,  proximity  to  the  sea,  moun- 

2  Les  Forets  de  I'Algerie  par  H.  L.  Lefebvre,  1900,  pp.  56-98. 

3  It  is  of  interest  that  Gsell  in  Le  climat  de  I'Afrique  du  nord  dans  I'antiquite  drew 
the  conchisions  that,  broadly  speaking,  the  cUmate  of  North  Africa  had  not  changed 
to  any  degree  since  the  Roman  occupation,  notwithstanding  the  deforestation. 
E.  Huntington,  in  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Economics,  Vol.  XXXI,  February  1917, 
p.  173,  argues  that  there  have  been  climatic  pulsations. 


PROGRESS   OF   FOREST  ADMINISTRATION  49 

tains,  or  desert,  of  course,  do  not  follow  exactly  the  prevailing 
wind  directions  of  the  season.  The  winds  from  the  desert, 
locally  known  as  the  "Sirocco,"  are  extremely  hot  and  dry 
and  disastrous  to  plant  hfe.  The  changes  from  east  to  north- 
west winds,  and  vice  versa,  occur  usually  in  November  and  in 
April. 

In  the  coast  region  the  rains  commence  at  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember, October,  or  November,  when  the  strong  northwest 
winds  from  the  Mediterranean  begin  to  blow.  They  cease  in 
May  or  early  June;  but  in  December,  January,  and  February 
there  are  dry  spells  of  from  15  to  20  days.  The  coast  rainfall 
reaches  i poo  mm.  (39  inches)  at  Bone  and  as  high  as  486  mm. 
(19  inches)  at  Oran. 

The  Algerian  temperature  is  mild,  and  except  for  days  when 
the  Sirocco  is  blowing,  rarely  exceeds  30°  C.  (86°  F.).  The  aver- 
age of  the  extremes  for  August,  the  hottest  month,  is  28°  C. 
to  33°  C.  (82°  F.  to  91°  F.);  for  January,  the  coldest,  the  aver- 
ages are  14°  C.  to  17°  C.  (57°  F.  to  63°  F.)  never  falling  below 
2°  C.  to  9°  C.  (36°  F.  to  32°  F.),  or  rising  above  40°  C.  to  48°  C. 
(io4°F.  toii8°F.). 

The  zone  nearest  to  the  sea  receives  on  an  average  from  1000 
to  1200  mm.  (39  to  47  inches)  of  precipitation;  other  regions  — 
Kabylie,  Algiers  with  the  surrounding  country,  and  the  north- 
western part  of  the  province  of  Constantine  —  about  800  mm. 
(31  inches);  other  parts  only —  500  mm.  (20  inches).  (  On  the 
high  plateaus  and  within  the  Sahara  region  the  precipitation 
amounts  to  about  ,5oo~mm.  (8  inches) ;  farther  south  rains 
appear  as  the  exception  —  once  in  several  years.  The  north- 
westerly winds  bring  the  heaviest  rains,  but  only  on  high  plateaus 
and  mountainous  sections. 

PROGRESS    OF   FOREST   ADMINISTRATION 

Forest  Situation  —  General.  —  The  present  situation  in  Al- 
geria, as  regards  the  administration  of  its  forest  area,  is  highly 
encouraging  when  compared  to  what  has  gone  on  in  the  past. 
As  one  reflects  that  the  forests  will  always,  with  the  best  manage- 
ment, have  to  fight  for  their  very  existence  against  the  inhos- 


50  ALGERIA 

pitable  climate,  considering  the  early  record  of  general  over- 
grazing, damage  from  fires,  and  losses  through  ill-advised  sales 
of  cork-oak  lands,  one  is  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  the  recent 
reform  in  organization,  forest  regulations,  and  administrative 
methods  came  none  too  soon. 

It  is  true  that  extensive  damage  from  fires  continues,  in 
spite  of  the  expensive  system  of  fire  lines  now  maintained. 
The  difficulties  still  encountered  in  preventing  or  punishing 
grazing  trespass  is  likely  to  form  the  chief  problem  of  the  forest 
service  for  years  to  come,  for  the  very  life  of  the  native  popu- 
lation is  linked  to  their  pastoral  rights  —  or  what  they  conceive 
to  be  such.  A  great  deal  can  be  done  to  alleviate  the  damage 
in  this  field,  however,  by  teaching  grazers  to  pasture  the  kind 
of  stock  which  does  least  harm. 

In  addition  to  the  losses  from  grazing  trespass  there  has  been 
in  former  years  a  direct  diminution  of  forest  area  through  the 
sale  of  valuable  cork-oak  lands.  The  excellent  results  now 
obtained  by  government  exploitations  of  similar  areas,  where 
the  state  reaps  the  benefits  of  higher  prices  and  increased  per 
acre  production,  serve  but  to  emphasize  the  gravity  of  the 
error  committed  in  parting  with  the  lands  in  question. 

To  sum  up  the  effect  of  these  early  administrative  laxities  — 
to  use  no  harsher  word  —  coupled  with  the  necessary  clearings 
for  colonization,  has  been  to  bring  about  a  serious  decrease 
in  the  total  forest  area  of  the  country.  One  writer  estimates 
that  the  forested  areas  near  Constantine,  Batna,  Medea,  and 
Setif  have  shrunk  by  from  lo  to  more  than  60  per  cent  since 
1871. 

Jonnart's  Reforms.  —  It  is  possible  that  a  good  many  of 
the  early  difficulties  of  administration  were  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  Forest  Service  at  first  attempted  to  copy,  too  closely 
for  local  necessities,  methods  used  in  France.  At  any  rate, 
it  is  certain  that  in  1902- 1909  the  criticism  of  the  forest  ad- 
ministration became  so  severe  that  Governor  Jonnart,  in  1904, 
assembled  a  commission  to  study  the  cause  of  the  dissatisfaction 
and  to  prescribe  remedies.  It  may  be  safely  stated  that  modern 
Algerian  forest  administration,  in  its  broadest  sense,  dates  from 


PROGRESS   OF   FOREST   ADMINISTRATION  51 

the  assembling  of  this  commission,  i  and  is  due  almost  wholly 
to  Governor  Jonnart's  wise  personal  direction  of  its  activities. 
For  to  the  governor's  influence,  more  than  to  any  other  one 
thing,  may  be  traced  the  extent  and  the  excellence  of  the  sweep- 
ing reforms  subsequently  introduced  and  carried  out. 

In  his  address"*  to  the  commission  Governor  Jonnart  spoke 
highly  of  the  Forest  Service  and  at  the  same  time  severely  criti- 
cised the  methods  too  often  employed  in  the  past: 

"In  a  country  like  this,"  he  said,  "the  forest  plays  such 
an  important  role  that  any  one  who  has  a  position  of  the 
slightest  authority  should  be  zealous  in  the  defense  of  the 
Forest  Service.  T  know  of  no  administrative  body  composed 
of  more  meritorious,  better  trained  or  more  honest  agents 
than  those  of  the  forest  service.  I  give  them  willingly^  this 
praise,  but  I  blame  them  for  keeping  a  Httle  too  much  apart 
from  the  other  Algerian  service,  for  applying  the  regulations 
too  uniformly,  and  for  not  having  developed  the  flexibility 
and  the  means  of  adaptation  so  indispensable  to  an  adminis- 
trative organization,  in  a  colony  where  it  is  unpolitic  and 
often  dangerous  to  try  to  follow  at  all  times,  in  the  footsteps 
of  the  fatherland. 

This  forest  question  has  held  my  attention  for  some 
time,  and  I  can  say  that  I  have  been  everywhere  in  Algeria; 
I  have  been  able  to  assure  myself  that  the  Forest  Servic'e  has 
been  too  often  bound  by  the  letter  of  the  laws  and  regulations, 
that  it  has  not  sufficiently  fathomed  their  spirit  nor  the  higher 
interests  of  Algerian  pohcy.  My  desire  is  that  a  permanent 
"entente  cordiale"  be  established  between  the  Forest  Service 
and  the  prefects,  assistant  prefects,  and  administrators  of 
mixed  communes,  so  that  they  may  work  together  for  the 
special  needs  of  the  population,  the  preventive  measures  to 
be  adopted  in  view  of  the  conflagrations,  and  the  fight  against 
the  floods.  I  wish  moreover  that  formahties  and  administra- 
tive red  tape  should  not  complicate  things,  as  if  for  the  sake 
of  mere  convention. 

"  I  wish  finally  that  the  Forest  Service  should  never  lose 
sight  of  the  fact  that  the  surest  way  to  avoid  fires  is  still  to 
interest  the  natives  in  the  existence  of  the  forests,  and  to 
associate  them  in  their  conservation,  either  by  showing  a 
greater  leniency,  so  far  as  the  pasturage  of  their  flocks  is 

*  Commission  d'Etudes  Forestieres,  1904,  pp.  9-10. 


52  ALGERIA 

concerned,  or  by  granting  them  small  individual  felling  areas. 
I  could  cite  regions  where  the  natives  confined  between  the 
lands  opened  for  settlement  and  the  forest  cannot  move, 
one  might  say,  without  risking  law  suits. 

''  We  have  now  a  more  supple  forest  law;  I  would  like  also 
to  see  less  stiffness  and  fonnahty  in  its  administration  in  those 
specially  charged  with  applying  it,  and  I  know  the  zeal  and 
the  patriotism  of  forest  personnel  well  enough  to  be  convinced 
that  it  will  seek  out  with  entire  devotion  and  loyalty,  in  accord 
with  all  the  members  of  the  commission,  the  means  to  im- 
prove a  situation  which  causes  anxiety  (and  rightly  so)  to  all 
those  who  are  interested  in  the  economic  development  of 
Algeria.    .    .    ." 

Work  of  Jonnart's  Commission.  —  Inspired  by  this  high- 
minded,  yet  pohtic  address,  the  commission  pursued  their  studies 
with  the  main  aims  of  future  administration  clearly  in  view. 
They  based  this  work  on  the  principle^  that  the  preservation 
of  existing  forests  and  even  of  brush  cover  was  important  for  the 
public  health,  the  habitabihty  and  the  prosperity  of  Algeria, 
because,  as  they  agreed,  the  forest  influenced  the  rainfall, 
assisted  the  filtration  of  water  and  maintenance  of  springs, 
lessened  erosion  and  tempered  floods,  temperature,  and  winds, 
at  the  same  time  bettering  local  health  conditions.  They  con- 
cluded, therefore,  that  the  forests  were  of  incalculable  value, 
both  direct  and  indirect,  in  the  economic  welfare  of  the  entire 
population  and  should  be  maintained  by  every  means  in  the 
power  of  the  state. 

Taking  up  afterward  the  forest  situation  in  detail,  the  com- 
mission determined  ^  that  one  of  the  chief  items  of  complaint 
against  the  Forest  Service  —  the  inclusion  of  agricultural  land 
within  forests  —  was  far  from  justified,  and  that  the  mainte- 
nance of  existing  forests^  was  so  important  that  the  cost  of 
administration  should  be  considered  secondary  to  the  attain- 
ment of  results.  To  remedy  the  existing  distrust  of  the  Service 
and  to  foster  a  favorable  local  sentiment  it  was  felt  that  the 
natives^  must  be  reconciled  to  forest  administration;  partly 
by  educational  measures,  but  also  by  giving  them  a  working 

6   Id.  6    7^.  7    /J.  8   /(^. 


PROGRESS   OF   FOREST  ADMINISTRATION  53 

interest  in  the  forests  through  the  wider  ^  use  of  native  laborers. 
The  educational  propaganda  even  included  the  training  of  the 
native  children  ^°  so  as  to  instill  in  them  the  knowledge  of  the 
value  of  forests  and  the  necessity  for  their  maintenance. 

Administration  Changes.  —  Many  of  the  suggestions  and 
ideas  brought  out  by  this  commission  have  gradually  been  put 
into  effect,  with  encouraging  results.  For  example,  in  1903 
the  receipts  from  the  forests  exceeded  the  expenditures  for  the 
first  time,  and  they  have  furthermore  increased  each  year  since 
that  time. 

The  new  forest  code  was  passed  and  has  proved  sufficiently 
plastic,  and  far  better  adapted  for  local  needs,  than  the  old. 
[  The  former  inspection  organization  was  done  away  with  and 
replaced  by  the  system  of  "chefferies,"  which  resulted  in  a 
simplified  administration  with  less  top-heavy  organization  and 
larger  salaries. 

A  system  of  control  was  also  inaugurated,  by  placing  "con- 
troleurs"  (general  inspectors)  at  each  conservator's  office  to 
take  up  systematic  field  inspection. 
I  Guards  and  rangers  are  now  allowed  tHrc^etares  (10  acres)  of 
land,  instead  of  2  hectares  (6  acres),  an  irrigated  garden,  and 
the  right  to  hunt  in  state  forests;  while  the  budget  of  1907 
granted  them  a  stated  allowance  per  child  to  help  pay  the  ex- 
pense of  their  children's  boarding  during  school  sessions. 

During  Jonnart's  term  the  pay  of  forest  officers  was  materi- 
ally increased,  rangers  receiving  100  francs  ($19.30),  and  guards 
60  francs  ($11.58)  more  than  formerly.  Officers'  pay  was  also 
raised,  so  that  a  comparison  of  the  salaries  they  now  receive 
with  those  given  to  officers  of  similar  grades  in  France  is  all  in 
favor  of  the  Algerians.  An  "office  assistant"  receives  4800 
francs  ($926.40),  or  double  the  pay  for  that  position  in  France, 
while  an  inspector  of  the  first  class  gets  8300  francs  ($1601.90) 
instead  of  4500  ($868.50)  as  he  would  in  the  mother  country. 

The  Forest  Service  under  Jonnart,  in  short,  prospered  exceed- 
ingly. His  regime  marked  a  new  and  healthier  era  in  Algerian 
forest  administration. 

9  Id.  M  Id. 


54 


ALGERIA 


FOREST   CONDITIONS 


The  Forests.  —  The  wooded  area  in  Algeria  is  estimated" 
to  cover  2.8  million  hectares  (about  7,000,000  acres)  of  land, 
which  is  a  total  of  only  11  per  cent  of  its  entire  surface  as 
compared  with  29  per  cent  for  Europe  and  18  per  cent  for  France 
itself.  As  a  rule  the  Algerian  forest  exists  now  only  on  land 
which  cannot  be  profitably  cultivated  by  the  natives.  The 
most  valuable  agricultural  land  —  under  crops  there  are  about 
3,000,000  hectares  (7I  milhon  acres)  —  lies  chiefly  in  the  large 
alluvial  plains,  while  the  forested  areas  comprise  the  gravels, 
quartzites,  volcanic  rocks,  limes  ones,  and,  sometimes,  schists  and 
hard  marbles  on  the  slopes  of  hills  and  mountains. 

The  species  ^-  of  Algerian  forests  are  remarkably  well  adapted 
to  the  soil  and  climatic  conditions;  small  in  size  and  with  per- 
sistent leaves  which  prevent,  with  their  thick  epidermis,  any 
excessive  evaporation.  )  The  only  species  which  form  continu- 
ous stands  of  any  size' are  the  cork  oak)  (Q.  suber),  the  zeen  or 
j^  Algerian  oak  {Q.  mirbeckii),  the  "  af ares  "  oak  (Q.  afares),  the 
fholm  oak]  (Q.  ilex),  thefaleppo  pine  (P.  halepensis),  msintime 
pine] (P.  mar itima),  cedar ){C.  atlantica),  thuya  {Callistris  quad- 
rivalvis)  ,\  Siud  juniper)  (/.  phoenicea)}^  Other  species  are  dis- 
tributed by  single  trees  or  small  groups  only,  and  are  conse- 
quently(of  but  little  economic  importance. 

;A  characteristic  feature  of  the  forest  flora  which  is  worthy 
of  mention  is  the  large  number  of  evergreen  species.  Most  of 
the  broad-leaved  species  which  are  not  evergreen  are  scattered 
singly  or  in  groups.  As  a  whole  the  flora  is  similar  to  that  of 
Spain,  Italy,  and  extreme  southern  France. 

The  Most  Important  Trees.^"*  —  The  cork  oak^^  in  Algeria 
grows  only  on  silicious  soils, formed  from  decomposed  crystal- 
line or  volcanic  rocks  and  in  sands  formed  by  disintegrated 

"  Les  ForSts  de  I'Algerie,  pp.  107  ff. 
12  Id.,  pp.  12  ff. 

"  The  relative  average  area  covered  by  each  species  is  given  on  page  56. 
"  Les  Forets  de  I'Algerie,  pp.  81-108. 

15  For  the  silvical  characteristics  of  cork  oak  see  forthcoming  publication  of 
U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


FOREST   CONDITIONS  55 

sandstone.  It  extends  from  the  ocean  up  to  an  altitude  of  -t^oo 
metres-  (4265  feet),  but  its  habitat  is  on  the  coast)  f  The-zeea 
or  Algerian  oak  commences  to  appear  with  the  cork  oak  at  700 
metres  (2296  feet)  altitude  and  seeks  the  richer  soil  in  the 
valley  bottoms  or  on  north  slopesJ  Occasionally  it  is  found 
mixed  with  cedar.  \  The  "afares"  oak  commences  at  1000 
metres  (3281  feet)  and  extends  to  the  limit  of  vegetation.. 
The  holm  oak,  which  is  usually  found  in  France  on  calcareous 
soil,  is  ordinarily  on  the  sandstone  in  Algeria  but  it  is  often  in 
mixture  with  cork  oak,  aleppo  pine,  and  even  with  the  cedar; 
although  it  reached  1800  metres  (5905  feet),  it  rarely  forms 
pure  stands  above  300  metres  (984  feet). 

{jThe  aleppo  pine  is  the  most  widely  distributed  conifer)^ it  is 
found)  on  the  marls  and  limestone  (from  the  sea  to  the  desert 
and  exists  on  barren  and  arid  soils.\  (^The  maritime  pine  is 
found  only  near  the  sea,  at  low  elevations.  )f  The  thuya  thrives 
at  middle  altitudes  in  the  mountains.j  It  is  usually  mixed  with 
aleppo  pine,  holm  oak,  or  olive.  It  sprouts  well  after  fires. 
The  juniper  is  mixed  with  the  aleppo  pine,  holm  oak,  and  thuya. 
The  cedar  is  found  above  1300  metres  (4265  feet)  on  both 
limestones  and  sandstones. 

y  The  undergrowth  is  dense  and  luxuriant  especially  in  the 
cork-oak  zone,]  when  not  kept  burned  off  by  repeated  fires. 
The  chief  species  are  the  cistus,  lentisk  {Pistacia  lentiscit^ 
heather,  myrtle,  and  arbute.  On  the  dunes  near  La  Calle  dup. 
undergrowth  is  form.ed  by  the  kermes  oak  {Q.  coccifera) .  *~\ 

Destruction  of  Forests  —  Causes.  —  Repeated  fires  have  in- 
creased the  already  large  areas  under  brush  or  "maquis."  ,  The 
destruction  ^^  of  Algerian  forests  has  been  caused  by  firss,  ex- 
cessive cutting  and  temporary  clearings,  establishment  of  heavy 
free  use  privileges  or  rights,  decadence  of  open  park-like  forests, 
and  excessive  grazing,  especially  by  goats.  '  The  effect  of  these 
abuses  are  less  evident  in  the  cork-oak  region  between  Dellys 
and  PhiUipeville,  where  the  vegetative  conditions  are  best; 
towards  the  East,  where  stock  is  worked  on  shares,  even  the 
cork  oak  suffers  in  consequence.  On  the  littoral  between  Algiers 
i«  Les  Forets  de  TAlgerie,  pp.  108-116. 


56  ALGERIA 

and  Oran,  in  High  Plateau,  and  in  southern  Constantine,  where 
the  soil  is  less  fertile,  the  damage  has  been  so  great  that  there 
is  real  danger  of  the  forests  disappearing. 

Extent  of  Forests.  —  The  wooded  area  in  Algeria,  as  has 
been  stated,  is  about  2,800,000  hectares  (6,918,800  acres),  of 
which  some  1,750,000  hectares  (4,324,250  acres)  are  federal  and 
70,000  hectares  (172,970  acres)  communal.  The  area  under 
military  control  is  about  350,000  to  400,000  hectares  (864,850 
to  988,400  acres).  There  are  approximately  162,000  hectares 
(400,302  acres)  of  private  cork-oak  forest,  given  in  former  con- 
cessions; but  there  are  no  statistics  in  regard  to  the  species  on 
private  holdings. 

The  1,750,000  hectares  (4,324,250  acres)  of  State  forests  com- 
prise approximately  the  following  area  (in  hectares)  by  species: 
Cork  oak,  240,000  (593,040  acres);  zeen  oak,  etc.,  40,000  to 
50,000  (98,840  to  123,550  acres);  kermes  and  holm  oak,  400,000 
to  500,000  (988,400  to  1,235,500  acres);  aleppo  pine,  600,000 
to  700,000  (1,482,600  to  1,729,700  acres);  cedar,  25,000  (61,775 
acres);  juniper  and  thuya,  100,000  to  150,000  (247,100  to 
270,650  acres);  miscellaneous  species,  such  as  poplar,  elm,  ash, 
olive,  maritime  pine,  etc.,  15,000  to  20,000  (37,065  to  49,420 
acres).  The  remainder  of  the  area  is  open  or  mere  brush  land. 
It  must  be  admitted,  moreover,  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
existing  forests  are  impoverished  and  that  at  least  1,200,000 
hectares  (2,965,200  acres)  have  been  burned  over  one  or  more 
times  during  the  past  40  years.  Not  exactly  a  picture  of  well- 
preserved  forest  wealth! 

Settlement  Policy.  —  The  colonization  of  agricultural  land 
is  encouraged  though  it  is  not  the  policy  to  clear  potential 
forest  land  for  agricultural  purposes.  Openings  within  state 
forests  may  be  leased,  but  not  granted  in  fee  simple,  be- 
cause theoretically  they  will  some  day  be  planted.  The  usual 
annual  lease  rate  is  15  francs  per  hectare,  varying,  of  course, 
with  the  quality  of  the  soil.  A  settler  outside  the  forest  receives 
free  20,  30,  or  40  hectares  (49,  74,  or  88  acres)  of  land  accord- 
ing to  its  soil  quality,  but  is  not  entitled  to  sell  it  until  after 
10  years'   residence.     Another  method  of  disposing  of  public 


FOREST   CONDITIONS  57 

land  is  to  sell  it  under  a  contract  which  provides  that  after 
8  years'  residence  and  bona  fide  improvement  a  part  of  the 
purchase  price  will  be  refunded. 

Forest  Statistics.  —  The  area  ^^  of  the  federal  forests,  in  mili- 
tary or  civil  territory,  managed  by  the  Forest  Service,  amounted 
in  1911  to  1,955,419  hectares  (4,831,840  acres)  which  territory 
was  divided  into  three  conservations:  Algiers,  465,002  (1,149,019 
acres);  Oran,  610,599  (1,508,790  acres);  Constantine,  879,818 
(2,174,030  acres).  These  yielded  in  1910  a  gross  revenue  of 
3,835,513  francs  ($740,252),  more  than  3  million  ($579,000) 
of  which  came  from  cork-oak  operations.  In  addition  material 
worth  1,131,227  francs  ($218,326.80)  was  given  away  during 
the  year. 

In  1910,  the  fuel  sold  totaled  155,088  steres  (5,476,787  cu.  ft.); 
logs,  3267  cu.m.  (115,370  cu.  ft.);  ties,  30,292  cu.m.  (1,069,731 
cu.  ft.);  poles,  93,773  cu.m.  (3,311,499  cu.  ft.);  tan  bark,  31,141 
quintaux  (6,865,407  pounds),  all  together  worth  638,909  francs 
($123,309.44).  This  comparison  illustrates  the  preponderance  of 
the  cork-oak  returns  over  those  from  wood.  In  1883,  the  total 
revenue  from  the  combined  sources  was  just  under  a  half  milhon 
francs  ($96,500);  10  years  later,  in  1893,  it  was  almost  three- 
fourths  of  a  million  ($144,750) ;  while  in  1903  it  reached  3,334,853 
($643,626.65).  By  1913  it  was  estimated  to  certainly  reach 
four  milHon  francs  ($772,000). 

Production.  —  Though  the  revenue  from  Algerian  forests  is 
derived  from  a  number  of  species,  cork  oak  yields  ^^  the  major 
part  of  this  total;  and  even  then  the  present  production  is 
only  about  half  of  what  it  should  be.  Cedar  is  sold  to  some 
extent,  but  it  is  just  within  the  past  few  years  that  the  wood 
has  been  in  demand.  The  aleppo  pine  had  not  yielded  a  rev- 
enue until  the  recent  experimental  tapping,  originated  by  Con- 
servator Laporte  at  Oran,  and  described  hereafter.  The  zeen 
oak  has  been  cut  to  a  considerable  extent  for  cross  ties,  and  the 
demand  has  constantly  increased.  The  market  for  minor  Prod- 
is The  latest  published  statistics  are  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  191 1,  Sta- 
tistique  Generale  de  I'Algerie,  pp.  296-300. 

IS  Commission  d'Etudes  Forestieres,  pp.  171-173. 


58  ALGERIA 

nets  is  better  each  year.  From  these  facts  the  prediction  is 
freely  made  that  a  revenue  two  or  three  times  greater  than  at 
present  will  accrue  to  the  Forest  Service  before  many  years. 

On  the  250,000  odd  hectares  ^^  (617,750  acres)  of  cork  oak 
the  state  has  about  four-fifths  in  full  production  (494,200  acres), 
and  an  average  ^ield  of  75  kilos  (165  pounds)  per  hectare 
(2.5  acres)  is  low,  considering  the  capacity  of  the  forest.  In 
1903  the  revenue  from  cork  was  about  2.5  million  francs 
($482,500).  Wood,  tannin,  charcoal,  chiefly  from  zeen  oak,  holm 
oak,  and  cedar  returned  about  625,00  francs  ($120,625)  in  1903, 
about  five  times  the  amount  sold  in  1890  ($24,125).  The 
minor  products  of  the  forests,  such  as  hunting,  grass,  pasturage, 
etc.,  are  yielding  about  120,000  francs  ($23,160)  annually.-^ 

Taking  into  consideration  the  fuel,  timber,  and  grazing  given 
away  each  year  this  means  a  production  of  about  2  francs  ($0,386) 
per  hectare  (2.5  acres),  and  it  is  hoped  that  this  average  will 
reach  6  or  7  francs  ($1.16  or  $1.35)  per  hectare  within  10  to  20 
years.  These  are  totals;  the  cork-oak  areas  now  produce  at 
least  10  francs  ($1.93)  per  hectare  (2.5  acres)  per  year  and 
showed  an  increase  of  double  the  former  figures  within  10  or 
15  years.  The  cost  of  forest  administration  in  Algeria  was  1.74 
francs  ($0.34)  per  hectare  (2.5  acres)  per  year  in  1903  and 
approximately  the  same  rate  of  expenditure  is  still  maintained. 

FOREST    MANAGEMENT 

Objects  of  Forest  Management.  —  Granting  as  a  basic 
principle  that  the  forests  of  Algeria  should  be  preserved,  it 
naturally  follows  that  the  management  must  be  conservative 
especially  in  the  case  of  those  forests  which  show  danger  of 
disappearing.  The  cork-oak  forests  hardly  come  under  this 
category,  because  of  the  more  favorable  climatic  conditions. 
In  these  forests  a  purely  financial  gain  is  sought  and  the  ad- 

"  Commission  d'Etudes  Forestieres,  p.  14. 

2"  The  development  of  minor  industries  is  encouraged;  the  grubbing  of  heather 
roots  (bruyere)  for  pipes  has  become  quite  an  industry  and  a  company  pays  about 
I  franc  ($0,193)  per  hectare  (2.5  acres)  per  year  for  large  area  concessions  from 
which  heather  roots  can  be  grubbed. 


FOREST   MANAGEMENT 


59 


ministration  by  reducing  the  forest  yield  sees  that  the  market 
is  not  depressed  by  over  production,  if  this  seems  necessary  to 
attain  the  desired  result.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  silvi- 
cultural  welfare  of  the  forest  is  neglected,  but  the  financial  side 
of  the  question  is  considered  first.  The  management  of  the 
remaining  species,  on  the  other  hand,  is  based  rather  on  the 
policy  of  conservation  than  on  financial  returns,  with  the  pos- 
sible exception  of  aleppo  pine,  which  is  now  being  tapped  in 
turpentine  operations. 


Fig.  II.  — The  transport  of  cork  to  a  local  depot  in  the  mountains  near 
Philippeville,  Algeria. 

Cork-oak  Management.^^  —  The  method  of  treatment  adopted 
in  managing  the  cork-oak  forests  is  based  solely  on  the  re- 
quirements for  cork  production;  the  harvest  of  tannin  as  a 
by-product  and  the  matter  of  regeneration  are  considered  as 
separate  and  distinct,  as  well  as  subsidiary,  problems.  The 
bark  is  in  reahty  like  a  fruit  crop,  where  trees  bear  only  after 
attaining  a  certain  size  and  continue  fruitful  only  for  a  certain 
period  Consequently,  the  selection  system  is  appUed;  but 
with  a  large  area  it  is  neither  advantageous  nor  practicable  to 
collect  selection  crops  over  an  entire  forest  each  year.     It  has 

21  Based  chiefly  on  the  official  working  plan  for  Foret  Domaniale  des  OiJed-el- 
Nadj,  December  lo,  191 2. 


6o  ALGERIA 

been  proved  more  advantageous  to  concentrate  the  yield  peri- 
odically; and  3  years,  a  multiple  of  either  9  or  12,  the  usual 
minimum  and  maximum  period  for  the  maturity  of  any  one 
bark  crop,  is  the  interval  between  harvests. 

Cultural  Rules.  —  It  is  considered  more  profitable  not  to 
peel  trees  when  too  young;  in  the  past  there  has  been  a  tend- 
ency to  commence  with  trees  50  m.  to  60  m.  (20  to  24  inches) 
in  circumference  (30  to  40  years  old),  whereas  it  is  essential  on 
average  soil  to  wait  until  a  tree  reaches  70  m.  (27  inches)  or 
even  80  m.  (31  inches).  Under  favorable  conditions  5  or  6 
collections  may  be  expected,  since  trees  continue  to  bear  until 
80  to  100  years  of  age.  If  collection  is  allowed  to  begin  when 
a  tree  is  too  young  the  growth  is  retarded,  the  tree  yields  a 
furrowed  cork  of  such  poor  quaHty  as  hardly  to  pay  for  the 
cost  of  collecting,  and  often  results  in  the  death  of  the  tree. 

When  a  tree  has  once  attained  merchantable  size  it  is  marked 
for  peeling.  The  bark  which  results  from  this  first  operation 
has  Httle  or  no  commercial  value  (Hege  male).  Dating  from 
the  time  this  rough  primary  back  crop  is  removed,  it  takes  on 
an  average  a  minimum  of  i  year  and  a  maximum  of  12  years 
for  the  merchantable  cork  to  reach  0.025  m.  (0.975  inch) 
(0.028  (i  inch)  with  epidermis)  in  thickness  —  which  is  the 
merchantable  size.  This  would  indicate  an  average  increase  of 
about  0.0029  (o.ii  inch)  per  year,  but  in  reality  the  growth 
in  thickness  diminishes  as  the  age  of  maturity  approaches. 

At  the  end  of  9  years  the  cork  on  one-half  the  trees  should 
reach  merchantable  size,  and  the  rest  by  the  end  of  the  12-year 
period,  with  a  mathematical  average  maturity  of  11  years, 
although  it  must  be  admitted  that  some  trees  are  ripe  after  7 
or  8  years  where  the  growth  is  vigorous.  As  a  rule,  however, 
the  more  rapid  the  growth  the  lower  the  quaHty  of  the  cork. 

A  simple  gauge  (Uke  a  shoemaker's  awl)  is  used  to  measure 
the  thickness  of  the  cork  when  marking  trees  to  be  cropped. 
The  incision  is  commenced  (usually  sawed  just  to  the  cambium) 
at  the  root  collar  and  vigorous  trees  can  be  barked  to  a  height 
equal  to  2.5  times  the  circumference;  in  other  words,  a  tree 
70  m.  (27  inches)  in  circumference  would  be  peeled  to  a  height 


FOREST  MANAGEMENT  6l 

of  1.75  metres  (6  feet)  above  the  first  incision.  If  the  tree 
is  very  thrifty  this  ratio  can  be  increased  from  2.5  to  3,  or 
if  not  vigorous  dropped  to  as  low  as  2.  Normally  the  height 
is  2.5  times  the  circumference  measured  at  breast  height  out- 
side the  bark.  This  height  can  be  increased  every  18  to  24 
years,  say  with  every  third  crop. 

It  was  formerly  the  practice  to  remove  only  one-half  to  one- 
third  the  total  height  covered  by  the  first  peeling,  but  it  is  now 
considered  better  to  remove  at  one  time  all  the  bark  which  the 
tree  can  produce.  After  the  cork  has  been  peeled  4  to  6  times, 
over  a  period  of  44  to  66  years,  the  trees  lose  their  producing 
capacity  and  fail  to  yield  enough  cork  to  cover  the  cost  of  peel- 
ing and  collection.  It  is  then  that  these  overmature  trees  are 
cut  for  tannin  and  fuel. 

Since  the  clearing  of  underbrush  is  so  expensive  that  it  can 
ordinarily  be  attempted  only  on  fire  Hues  or  where  plantations 
must  be  undertaken,  and  since  the  cork  oak  retains  its  sprout- 
ing capacity  until  a  very  late  date,  it  is  always  advisable  to  cut 
back  trees  level  with  the  ground,  if  they  have  been  damaged 
by  fire. 

Aleppo  Pine.  —  Next  to  the  cork  oak  the  aleppo  pine  has  the 
greatest  commercial  possibilities  of  any  species  in  Algeria.  If 
it  can,  as  seems  probable,  be  properly  developed  to  yield  resin, 
this  potential  value  will  become  a  fact. 

Conservator  Laporte  at  Oran  has  started  progressive  experi- 
ments on  a  practical  basis,  to  determine  whether  or  not  tapping 
is  feasible.  Work  has  begun  in  the  "chefferie"  of  Telegh-^ 
which  comprises  some  108,412  hectares  (267,886  acres)  at  an 
average  elevation  of  1000  metres  (3280  feet)  and  where  in 
winter  snow  occasionally  reaches  a  depth  of  0.3  to  0.6  metres 
(i  to  2  feet).  The  aleppo  pine  is  found  here  in  almost  pure 
stands  with  an  infrequent  mixture  of  holm  oak  and  thuya. 

A  trial  tapping  was  commenced  in  1906  on  a  commercial 
scale  and  is  now  extensive  enough  to  justify  the  maintenance 
of  a  still.     The  price  fixed  by  the  1907  concession  was  0.05  franc 

^^  Exploitations  et  Gemmage  du  pin  d'alep.  Laporte,  Revue  des  Eaux  et 
Forets,  October  and  November,  191 1. 


62  ALGERIA 

($0,009)  per  tree  per  year,  payable  in  two  equal  installments  on 
July  15  and  January  15  of  each  year. 

The  contract  governing  the  method  of  tapping  the  tree-^ 
allows  a  maximum  width  of  0.09  m.  (3.5  inches)  for  the  scar  dur- 
ing the  first  2  years,  0.08  m.  (3.1  inches)  the  third,  and  0.07  m. 
(2.7  inches)  the  fourth;  a  height  of  0.55  m.  (22  inches)  the  first, 
0.60  m.  (24  inches)  the  second  and 0.65  m.  (26  inches)  the  third  and 
fourth  marking.  A  total  maximum  height  for  the  scar  of  2.45 
metres  (8  feet)  is  allowed  after  4  years;  the  depth  may  reach 
I  centimetre  (0.4  inch).  All  trees  must  be  at  least  0.90  m.  (36 
inches)  in  circumference  before  being  tapped.  Experiments 
prior  to  the  initiation  of  the  present  working  group  had  already 
shown  that  aleppo  pine  only  0.80  m.  (31  inches)  in  circumference 
could  not  be  safely  tapped,  and  that  6  years  of  continuous 
tapping  was  too  long. 

This  development  of  a  turpentine  industry  in  an  arid  country 
with  no  means  of  forest  communication  has  raised  certain  serious 
problems,  namely,  the  commercial  success  is  more  or  less  de- 
pendent upon  good  prices  for  turpentine;  the  initial  expense 
for  road  development  was  considerable,  and  if  the  enterprise 
were  to  fail  the  building  of  the  road  could  hardly  be  justified 
on  any  other  grounds;  no  adequate  provision  can  be  made  for 
reproduction;  even  if  regeneration  does  come  in  naturally,  there 
will  be  vast  areas  of  young  growth  which  will  yield  nothing, 
and  which  will  constitute  a  great  fire  menace;  the  necessary 
periods  of  rest  are  incompatible  with  the  maintenance  of  the 
industry. 

These  problems  may  be  solved  by  fixing  a  rotation  suitable 
for  tapping  and  for  the  production  of  wood;  exploitation  must 
be  arranged  systematically  and  the  young  stands  must  be 
thinned. 

Thus,  if  a  0.90-metre  (35  inches)  tree  were  tapped  in  19 10, 
1911,  1912,  and  1913  it  would  be  felled  in  1914;  the  same  cycle 
would  be  carried  out  in  1914  to  1918,  and  1919  to  1922,  etc.  The 
effect  is  that  the  felling  and  the  first  year  of  the  new  tapping 

2''  The  Landes  methods  are  described  in  a  review  by  the  writer  published  in 
the  Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  XIV,  No.  4,  1916. 


FOREST  MANAGEMENT  63 

would  progress  simultaneously.-'*  The  regeneration  fellings  are 
not  made  by  clear  cutting,  as  in  the  Landes,  near  Bordeaux 
only  trees  0.60  metre  (23  inches)  and  over  in  circumference 
being  felled,  but  this  diameter  limit  system  is  varied  according 
to  the  amount  of  existing  reproduction  on  the  ground. 

As  in  the  Landes,  "tapping  to  death"  for  thinnings  and  tap- 
ping ahve  on  trees  destined  to  form  the  final  crop  is  practiced. 
The  yield  from  1387  scars  (on  trees  tapped  ahve  with  i  scar) 
averaged  1.96  htres  (2.07  quarts)  per  year.  For  trees  tapped 
to  death  the  average  of  1326  scars  was  1.88  litres  (2  quarts). 

Treatment.  —  It  might  be  supposed,  after  the  disasters 
from  fire  in  even-aged  coniferous  stands  in  Corsica  —  a  disaster 
which  followed  the  use  of  the  shelterwood  system  —  that  the 
selection  system,  would  be  applied  to  the  aleppo  pine  in  Algeria, 
but  according  to  a  recent  working  plan: 

"Each^^  of  the  three  w^orking  groups  will  be  treated  by 
the  shelterwood  method.  The  selection  (system),  which  in- 
creases the  confusion  of  ages  and  renders  difficult  the  removal 
of  the  fellings,  cannot  be  considered. 

"The  surface  of  each  working  group  will  be  divided  into 
'coupons'  (small  felHng  areas).  The  regeneration  felling  will 
be  laid  in  succession  in  each  of  these  felKng  areas.  It  will 
be  made  by  tapping  to  death  during  a  period  which  will  be 
determined  later. 

"In  this  regeneration  felHng  the  trees  more  than  0.60  metre 
(23  inches)  in  circumference  must  be  felled,  but  those  0.60  metre 
(23  inches)  and  below  should  be  kept  with  existing  regeneration. 
In  the  felHng  areas,  where  the  regeneration  on  the  ground  is 
considered  sufficient,  all  old  trees  will  be  marked  for  removal. 

"On  the  other  hand,  the  marking  must  be  conservative  in 
the  areas  where  the  stand  consists  of  mature  timber  only, 
without  young  growth  already  on  the  ground.  Future  re- 
generation presents  in  reality  several  uncertainties  in  stands 
of  this  kind." 

The  working  plans  officer  further  states  that  in  very  open 
stands  only  the  dead  and  dying  trees  should  be  removed;  in 
dense  stands  thinning  is  accompUshed  by  removing  up  to  half 

2<  See  page  7 1  for  an  explanation  of  the  provision  for  management. 
25  Part  II,  Reglement  d'E.xploitation,  Foret  de  Takrouma. 


64  ALGERIA 

the  material;  the  trees  reserved  should  be  left  near  openings; 
the  marking  should  be  light  within  20  to  30  metres  (22  to  33  yards) 
of  fields  and  clearings;  a  zone  of  200  metres  (218  yards)  in 
width  should  be  reserved  from  cutting  along  the  southern  bound- 
ary of  the  forest. 

The  concluding  instructions  are: 

"At  the  same  time  these  regeneration  fellings  are  marked 
the  other  felhng  areas  will  be  cut  over  by  improvement 
fellings  of  two  kinds. 

"  I.  In  the  young  stands,  these  fellings  will  be  simple  thin- 
nings with  the  aim  of  opening  up  the  stand  and  assuring  as 
rapid  a  growth  as  possible. 

'*2.  In  the  older  stands,  where  the  boles  may  be  tapped,  it 
will  aim  to  choose  the  trees  which  will  form  the  final  stand, 
and  the  trees  to  be  cut  will  be  tapped  to  death. 

"3.  Finally,  on  the  entire  area  of  the  working  group  not 
cut  over  by  regeneration  fellings,  tapping  alive  will  be  fol- 
lowed on  all  trees  i  metre  (i  yard)  or  more  in  circumference 
as  explained  later." 

A  curious  feature  of  aleppo  pine  seems  to  be  that  it  exhausts 
the  freshness  of  the  soil  more  than  would  be  expected,  and 
lowers  the  surface  water  quite  materially.  It  is  a  matter  of 
record  that  after  clear  cuttings  at  Rivoli  the  water  level  rose 
and  where  extensive  plantations  were  made  the  water  level 
sank.-^ 

Treatment  of  Other  Species.  —  The  zeen  oak  is  cut  clear, 
with  groups  of  seed  trees,  comprising  perhaps  20  per  cent  of 
the  stand,  left  for  seed.  Where  single  trees  are  left  they  are 
apt  to  become  stagheaded.  Probably  in  many  cases  the  natu- 
ral regeneration  must  be  assisted  by  sowing  or  planting  blanks. 
The  product  of  this  species  is  chiefly  ties.  No  form^al  rotation 
has  been  estabHshed. 

The  forests  of  cedar  have  suffered  from  excessive  grazing  and 
from  such  abuses  as  lopping  for  fodder.  Moreover,  in  the  past, 
there  has  been  little  or  no  demand  for  the  wood.^^     Recently, 

26  This  corresponds  with  the  results  of  experiments  conducted  near.  Nancy,  France. 

-^  At  the  Bardo  Museum  at  Tunis  there  is  a  cedar  coffin  which  was  found  in  a 
cave  at  Ksour-es-saf,  still  well  preserved,  with  one  or  two  boards  absolutely  intact. 
It  is  Phoenician  and  dates  from  about  300  B.C. 


FOREST   MANAGEMENT 


65 


notwithstanding  a  better  market,  the  cuttings  have  been  in 
reality  light  improvement  fellings,  in  which  only  dead  and 
diseased  trees  are  removed.     The  reproduction  is  occasionally 


Fig.  12.  —  Virgin  zeen-oak  forest  in  Algeria,  Constantine  Conservation. 


assisted  by  wounding  the  soil,  particularly  where  it  is  covered 
with  sod. 

The  oaks  used  for  cord  wood,  such  as  the  holm  oak,  are  gen- 
erally coppiced.  Rotations  as  high  as  54  years  have  been  used, 
but  found  too  long;  30  years  is  now  recommended  as  preferable. 
The  coppice  method  is  varied  in  (a)  overmature  stands  and 
(b)  with  very  young  poles. 

The  procedure  in  each  of  these  methods  is  as  follows:  (a) 
Where  pasturage  has  kept  young  growth  from  coming  in  and 
the  remaining  stand  is  mature;  instead  of  an  ordinary  coppice 
felling,  the  stump  is  removed  down  to  a  depth  of  50  or  60  cen- 
timetres (20  to  24  inches).  This  frees  the  large  roots,  and, 
instead  of  having  one  old  stump  with  a  weak  sprouting  capacity, 
there  are  a  number  of  large  roots  which  may  yield  vigorous 
shoots  or  suckers.  This  is  known  as  the  method  of  "culee 
noire." 

(b)  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  stand  coppiced  is  only  3  to 
5  centimetres  (1.2  to  2  inches)  in  diameter,  the  young  stems 


66  ALGERIA 

are  cut  4  to  5  centimetres  (1.6  to  2  inches)  above  the  ground 
and  then  hammered  and  bruised  with  the  axe,  to  make  them 
sucker  freely. 

WORKING   PLANS 

There  has  been  Httle  real  need  as  yet  for  working  plans; 
mainly  for  two  reasons.  First,  because  the  demand  for  wood 
was  much  less  than  the  supply;  and  second,  because  the 
main  crop  —  cork  —  was  really  a  fruit  crop  which  had  to  be  col- 
lected when  ripe,  and  could  be  readily  gauged  each  year  by 
cropping  areas  of  an  equal  producing  capacity.  By  the  mere 
working  of  an  area  statistics  were  coOected  as  to  yield.  Within 
the  past  few  years,  however,  an  attempt  at  systematic  regula- 
tion had  been  made  for  a  few  cork-oak  forests,  and  for  the  aleppo- 
pine  forests  which  are  being  tapped.  A  typical  working  plan 
for  each  type  of  forest  is  accordingly  reviewed,  in  order  to  give 
an  exact  idea  of  how  the  problem  of  systematic  management 
has  been  solved. 

A  Working  Plan  for  Cork  Oak.-^  —  The  Algerian  working 
plan  for  cork  oak  follows,  with  some  variations,  the  standard 
outline  used  in  France.     It  is  summarized  as  follows: 

Part  I —  (i)  Area  with  portion  wooded, '  openings,  and  blanks 
(7,963.67  hectares);  (2)  Situation;  (3)  Topography  and  geology; 
(4)    Climate;    (5)    Boundaries;    (6)    Alienations;    (7)     Rights; 

(8)  Kind  and  condition  of  stands  (cork  oak  with  some  zeen  oak, 
especial  reference  to  reproduction  and   the  growth   of    cork); 

(9)  Roads;  (10)  Fire  lines  and  protection  (the  lines  are  classi- 
fied as  to  whether  boundary,  5  to  25  metre  (5.5  to  27  yards) 
Hnes,  or  interior,  25  to  30  metre  (27  to  33  yards)  lines;  (11) 
Forest  houses;  (12)  Trespass;  (13)  Fires  and  lookout  posts 
(during  the  years  1881  to  191 1  there  were  18  conflagrations, 
of  which  2  were  accidental,  13  were  incendiary,  and  the  causes 
of  3  were  unknown) ;  (14)  Value  and  price  of  cork  (at  the  depots 
it  has  averaged  23  francs  ($4.43)  per  quintal  (220  pounds)  with 
labor  at  1.55  francs  ($0.30)  per  day). 

Part  II  —  (i)  The  actual  treatment  (accorded  the  cork  oak); 
^  For  the  forest  of  Ouled-el-nadj,  dated  December  10,  1912. 


WORKING   PLANS  67 

(2)  The  basis  of  management  proposed  for  cork  oak,  with  a 
division  into  working  groups;  the  treatment  to  adopt;  stock 
taking  and  yield;  general  cultural  rules;  (3)  Miscellaneous 
species. 

Part  III — (i)  Compartment  descriptions  (the  compartments 
are  each  from  77  to  285  hectares  (190  to  704  acres)  in  area) ;  (2) 
Exploitable  age;  (3)  Rotations  and  divisions;  (4)  General  in- 
ventory of  growing  stock.  (This  gives  by  division,  canton,  com- 
partment, year;  number  of  trees  peeled,  number  of  quintaux 
collected  by  compartment  and  by  division;  average  age,  i.e., 
length  of  years  it  took  the  bark  to  mature;  remarks.)  (5)  De- 
termination of  the  yield  during  the  first  and  second  periods 
(the  working  plans  officer  concludes  that  the  figures  of  past 
collections  are  sufficiently  exact  to  determine  yield  on  areas  now 
producing  and  that  on  areas  not  yet  cropped  2-hectare  (5-acre) 
sample  plots  will  give  an  indication,  although  the  yield  per  hectare 
(2.5  acres)  and  per  year  is  subject  to  great  variations,  due  to 
the  necessity  of  obtaining  cork  of  a  minimum  commercial  thick- 
ness, so  naturally  a  sustained  yield  of  i  quintal  (220  pounds) 
per  hectare  (2.5  acres)  per  year  cannot  be  attained,  but  that 
ordinarily  an  average  of  0.50  to  0.70  quintaux  (i  10  to  154  pounds) 
per  hectare  (2.5  acres)  per  year  will  be  possible,  even  counting 
ordinary  openings  and  blanks.)  Thus  with  cork  oak  the  yield 
is  by  area  with  a  quahty  factor  introduced  when  the  number 
of  producing  trees  per  hectare  (2.5  acres)  are  known  or  estimated; 
(6)  Tannin  felhngs  (only  the  old  trees,  which  are  no  longer  pro- 
ducing cork  are  cut  for  tannin  and  care  is  taken  not  to  denude 
areas  which  are  covered  with  brush  and  weeds);  (7)  General 
regulation  of  felhngs  (the  felUngs  are  prescribed  for  each  year 
by  division,  compartment,  age  of  bark  to  be  collected,  9  and 
12  years;  remarks). 

Part  IV  gives  betterments  such  as  (i)  Working  plan  divisions; 
(2)  Boundaries;  (3)  Fire  fines;  (4)  Roads  and  trails;  (5)  Forest 
houses;  (6)  Brush  cutting  and  restocking.  The  appendix  of 
the  working  plan  includes  the  sample  plot  measurements  and  a 
permanent  control  in  the  following  form:  Year,  division,  canton, 
compartment,  collections  by  (a)  number  of  trees,  (b)  quintaux, 


68  ALGERIA 

(c)  price  per  quintal  (220  pounds),  (d)  cost  of  collection  per 
quintal  (220  pounds).  Also  an  account  of  the  trees  ("Mises 
en  valeur")  barked  for  the  first  time  by  (a)  number  of  trees 
and  (b)  cost  per  tree;  secondary  products  such  as  tannin  by 
(a)  amount  and  (b)  price;  remarks.  These  figures  are  considered 
very  important  as  a  basis  for  future  working  plans.  Since  1888 
the  collection  and  peehng  of  bark  has  been  done  by  the  govern- 
ment by  day  labor. 

The  working  plan  for  the  aleppo-pine  forest  of  Takrouina 
follows  the  same  general  outline  used  in  working  plans  for  cork 
oak.  In  this  forest  the  yield  is  also  regulated  by  area  with  the 
rotation  of  fellings,  as  follows:  (a)  Regeneration;  (b)  Thin- 
nings in  young  sapKng  stands,  20  years  old,  which  will  probably 
cost  some  outlay;  (c)  WHien  the  trees  are  large  enough  the 
thinnings  will  be  made  by  tapping  to  death  the  trees  which 
are  marked  for  thinnings;  (d)  Tapping  alive  during  the  life  of 
the  tree  after  it  attains  a  proper  size. 

The  author  of  the  working  plan  states : 

"An  average  tree  of  i  metre  (39  inches)  in  circumference 
is  thus  72  years  old;  one  can  therefore  assume  that  the  average 

growth  is  — —  =  0.139  (0.547  inch)  and  that  a  tree  of  80  years 

72 

would  be  80  times  0.0139  or  i.ii  m.  (43  inches). 

We  have  decided  then  to  fix  the  exploitable  age  at  80  and 
the  size  for  the  trees  to  be  tapped  at  i  metre  (39  inches)  of 
circumference.  We  propose  besides  to  fix  the  period  for  tapping 
at  4  years,  with  an  additional  year  for  felling." 


WORKIxNG   PLANS 


69 


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WORKING   PLANS  7 1 

The  working  plan  recites  the  sequence  of  the  four  classes  of 
felhngs  in  the  forms  which  follow: 

Sequence  of  regeneration  fellings:  Small  felHng  area  occupied 
by  the  timber  of  each  age  class;  total  area  of  the  felling;  age 
of  the  timber  in  191 2;  felling  classed  as  (a)  abnormal  and  (b) 
normal,  with  under  each  the  age  and  period  when  the  trees  are 
to  be  cut  by  tapping  to  death;   remarks. 

Sequence  of  thinning  (by  day  labor);  periods;  felling  area 
divided  (a)  into  the  portion  from  each  felling  area  and 
(b)  total  per  year;  age  of  the  wood  at  the  time  of  thinning; 
remarks. 

Sequence  of  thinning  by  tapping  to  death;  same  as  preceding. 

Sequence  of  exploitation  by  tapping  alive;  periods;  small 
felling  areas;   notes  on  work  to  be  done;   remarks. 

Management  Record.  —  Since  there  are  so  few  forests  under 
working  plans,  a  substitute  has  been  devised  which  contains 
some  material  usually  included  in  a  working  plan,  besides  im- 
portant statistical  data  required  for  annual  reports.  A  part  of 
the  record  is  written  on  the  covers  of  a  specially  printed  folder 
and  part  is  on  sheets  and  maps  filed  within  this  folder;  these 
folders  complete  are  officially  termed  "bundles  of  management." 

On  each  folder  is  given:  Natural  region  and  classification  of 
the  surface  into  mountains,  hills,  and  plains,  and  by  geological 
formation  —  altitude,  maximum  and  minimum;  stand  with  the 
per  cent  of  each  species  given  in  tenths;  general  condition;  soil; 
climate;  springs,  water  courses,  influence  on  the  forest;  mis- 
cellaneous data,  such  as  quarries,  mines,  etc.;  causes  of  forest 
devastation,  bordering  properties,  activities  of  inhabitants,  ad- 
vantages and  inconveniences  of  interior  holdings,  and  the  chance 
for  their  purchase;  digest  of  damages  caused  by  fires;  grazing, 
felhngs,  usurpations,  and  other  trespasses.  Fire  statistics  also 
are  shown  and  these  include:  date  of  fires,  surface  burned  over; 
areas  burned;  valuation  of  the  damage  to  the  forest,  divided 
into  (a)  cork,  (b)  wood,  (c)  miscellaneous,  and  (d)  totals;  prob- 
able cause  of  the  fire;  remarks. 

Trespass  statistics  are  set  forth  in  lump  figures  (estimates) 
for  the  period  1884  to  1900  inclusive  and  commencing  with  1901 


72  ALGERIA 

separate  and  exact  data  are  compiled  for  each  year.  The  tres- 
passes are  here  classified  by:  grazing;  cuttings,  including  wood 
and  bark;  theft  of  cork  (after  being  peeled  by  the  State) ;  squat- 
ting on  agricultural  land  or  tampering  with  boundaries;  hunting; 
minor  products;  fires;  fires  set  within  district  (where  setting 
of  fires  is  forbidden) ;  constructions  or  camps  within  this  district; 
miscellaneous. 

All  of  the  foregoing  information  is  recorded  on  the  outside  and 
inside  covers  of  the  folder.  Inside  the  folder  there  are:  maps; 
abstract  of  work  accompHshed,  described  for  the  period  1886 
to  1900,  and  by  years  after  1901;  year;  nature  of  work  done; 
paths,  roads,  and  bridges,  (a)  new  and  {b)  maintenance;  re- 
moval of  first  cork  layer;  collection  of  cork;  fire  protection, 
(a)  new  and  (b)  maintenance;  restocking,  (a)  new  and  (b)  main- 
tenance; regeneration;  brush  cutting,  lopping,  grafting;  man- 
agement, boundaries,  maps;  operations  relating  to  felHng  areas, 
etc.;  totals  per  year  by  (a)  money,  (b)  value  of  work  done  by 
trespassers,  (c)  by  contractors  and  right  holders,  (d)  total; 
remarks. 

The  receipts  are  digested  by  years;  section  of  budget,  nature 
of  products  by  principal  products  as  to  whether  cork,  wood,  and 
bark  (ordinary,  extraordinary,  and  accidental);  miscellaneous 
products. 

The  official  force,  by  forests,  is  set  down,  showing  the  number 
of  employees  of  each  class,  and  in  addition  the  residence  of  the 
ranger  in  charge  of  the  beat  with  the  area. 

These  records  thus  contain  all  information  which  those  in 
charge  need  for  administrative  purposes  and  are  an  admirable 
substitute  for  the  formal  European  working  plan.  The  idea 
could  be  adopted  in  the  United  States. 

DISPOSAL   OF   PRODUCE 

Sales.  —  Shortly  after  the  conquest  -^  the  cropping  of  cork 
oak  was  commenced;  and  as  early  as  1847  the  exportation  had 
reached  460  quintaux  (101,384  pounds).     Since  the  state  did 

29  Commission  d'Etudes  Forestieres,  pp.  173-177. 


DISPOSAL  OF   PRODUCE  73 

not  have  the  resources  with  which  to  conduct  the  operations, 
the  exploitation  was  at  first  placed  in  private  hands,  under  a 
lease  system.  After  the  fires  of  1862-63,  some  162,000  hectares 
(400,302  acres)  were  ceded  outright  under  the  following  arrange- 
ment: during  the  first  lo-year  period  there  were  no  payments, 
during  the  second  10- year  period  a  payment  of  2  francs  (-$0,386) 
per  hectare  (2.5  acres)  per  year  was  required  with  the  under- 
standing that  at  the  end  of  20  years  the  lessor  would  be  given 
the  land  in  fee  simple. 

According  to  the  decree  of  Aug.  9,  1864,  the  cork  oak  could 
be  leased  after  public  auction  for  periods  not  to  exceed  90  years, 
but  as  a  matter  of  fact  most  of  these  concessions  were  sold  out- 
right in  1867  and  1870.  By  the  decree  of  Feb.  2,  1870,  the 
areas  (a)  burned  between  Jan.  i,  1863,  and  June  30,  1870,  as 
well  as  (b)  a  third  of  the  areas  not  burned,  were  given  outright 
to  the  lessors.  The  two-thirds  of  unburned  areas  were  sold 
for  60  francs  ($11.58)  per  hectare  (2.5  acres),  payable  in  20 
annuities;  these  began  10  years  after  the  sale,  at  the  rate  of 
2  francs  ($0,386)  each  year  of  the  first  10  years,  from  1880,  and 
4  francs  ($0,772)  for  the  last  10  years.  The  governor  was  also 
authorized  to  give  free  of  charge  an  area  equal  to  the.  area 
burned  over,  if  the  grantors  had  suftered  severe  losses.  If 
work  was  not  started  in  5  years,  however,  on  at  least  a  quarter 
of  the  area,  then  the  third  part  given  free  could  be  revoked. 

These  sales  were  condemned  so  severely  that  in  1876  a  system 
of  14-year  leases  were  tried  out,  but  the  working  was  badly 
compHcated  by  fires  and  by  failure  of  the  concession  holders  to 
comply  with  the  regulations,  and  the  experiment  proved  a 
failure.  Later,  as  an  alternative,  the  cork  was  sold  standing 
at  a  price  per  quintal  (220  pounds)  collected,  but  half  the 
cork  collected  disappeared  before  it  could  be  weighed.  When 
this  scheme  fell  through,  therefore,  the  Forest  Service  was  author- 
ized on  July  16,  1891,  to  collect  and  sell  the  cork  after  collection; 
this  method  has  continued  in  force  to  the  present  time  and  is 
entirely  satisfactory.  The  amount  collected  has  risen  steadily; 
11,000  quintaux  (2,424,400  pounds)  in  1892;  31,000  (6,832,400 
pounds)  in  1897;  to  86,000  (18,954,400  pounds)  in  1904. 


74  ALGERIA 

The  forest  products  are  now  divided  into  (a)  principal  products 
and  (b)  miscellaneous  products.  The  principal  products  include 
cork,  wood,  and  bark  cut  under  ordinary,  extraordinary,  or 
accidental  fellings.  The  principal  products  are,  in  theory,  sold 
by  public  auction  standing  or  by  a  unit  price.  If  ordinary  sales, 
they  can  be  made  by  agreement  in  cases  of  special  authoriza- 
tion by  the  governor  and  after  a  pubKc  auction  has  been  held 
and  no  satisfactory  bids  received.  Accidental  products  may  be 
sold  by  agreement,  when  they  cannot  be  auctioned,  and  if  there 
is  an  unforeseen  emergency.  The  minor  or  miscellaneous  prod- 
ucts include  the  hunt,  lease  of  agriculture  land  in  openings, 
acorns,  grazing  of  all  kinds,  collection  of  alfa,  dead  wood,  stumps, 
weeds,  seeds,  fruit,  grass,  diss,  stone,  soil,  sand,  etc.  The  con- 
servators are  authorized  to  recommend  to  the  prefects  the  lease 
of  the  hunt,  agriculture  land  and  quarries  (if  no  phosphates 
are  included),  up  to  periods  of  a  year,  if  the  annual  rental  is 
less  than  2000  francs  ($386).  The  governor  approves  leases 
above  this  amount  for  periods  of  9  to  18  years.  The  sale  by 
agreement  of  so-called  minor  products  is  on  the  basis  of  a  price 
schedule  approved  annually. 

Sales  of  cork  bark  are  made  at  public  auction,  at  the  most 
centrally  located  town  in  the  conservation.  The  cork  has  been 
previously  collected  at  depots  on  each  forest  and  divided  into 
piles,  which  are  consecutively  numbered.  The  sales  book  ^° 
describes  each  bark  pile  as  follows:  serial  number,  number  of 
the  pile,  weight  in  quintaux,  classification  of  the  cork,  names  of 
forest  and  depot,  with  the  number  of  kilometres  of  transport 
to  market.  It  seems  to  be  the  policy  to  make  the  piles  (which 
are  sold  separately)  small,  usually  300  to  500  quintaux  (66,120 
to  110,200  pounds),  and  rarely  exceeding  800  (176,320  pounds). 

The  expense  of  collection  is  usually  5  to  6  francs  ($0.96  to 
$1.16)  per  quintal  (220  pounds).  The  removal  of  the  bark  costs 
2.80  francs  ($0.54),  the  transport  1.60  to  2.30  francs  ($0.31  to 
$0.44),  and  the  remainder  is  made  up  of  miscellaneous  expenses. 
The  judgment  of  the  local  conservators  is  firmly  in  favor  of  the 

30  Vente  de  lieges  de  Reproduction  Recoltes  en  191 2  Conservation  de  Con- 
stantine,  pp.  1-24. 


DISPOSAL   OF   PRODUCE  75 

departmental  exploitation  of  cork.  For  example,  during  a 
typical  year,  the  conservator  at  Constantine  collected  95,289 
qiiintaux  (21,001,695  pounds)  of  cork,  worth  gross  3,274,425.50 
francs  ($631,964),  at  a  cost  of  534,800  francs  ($103,216)  — a  profit 
to  the  government  2  to  4  times  as  great  as  under  the  lease  or 
sale  system.  In  addition  the  silvicultural  needs  of  the  forest 
are  more  nearly  met.  Especially  where  the  term  is  for  long 
periods  lessors,  in  the  contract  system,  have  almost  invariably 
failed  to  hve  up  to  the  terms  of  the  agreement. 

The  decree  ^i  (giving  the  details  for  the  exploitation,  transport, 
sale,  and  exportation  of  cork  under  present  conditions)  is  mainly 
designed  to  prevent  theft,  and  it  would  seem  as  if  under  its 
provisions  it  would  be  practically  impossible  for  successful 
thieving  to  be  practiced  on  any  great  scale.  Even  owners  who 
wish  to  collect  bark  must  furnish  at  least  a  month  in  advance, 
to  the  proper  local  official  (usually  the  mayor),  the  name  and 
location  of  the  stand,  the  period  for  collection,  the  number  of 
trees,  and  the  approximate  number  of  pounds  of  bark  to  be 
collected.  This  provides  opportunity  for  the  state  to  verify 
ownership  before  exploitation.  Moreover,  the  bark  cannot  be 
transported  without  a  permit  giving  the  name  and  residence 
of  the  transporter,  the  number  of  pounds,  and  the  quahty. 
These  permits  are  temporary  and  personal  and  must  be  pro- 
duced whenever  required  by  the  proper  official.  Similarly,  no 
sale  or  export  can  take  place  without  an  inspection  of  the  orig- 
inal certificates  showing  ownership  and  origin.  All  shipments 
must  be  described  according  to  the  following  classifications: 
(a)  Raw  cork;  {b)  Baled  cork;  (c)  Manufactured  cork;  (d) 
Waste  cork  (baled  fragments);  (e)  Crude  bark  (first  peeHng 
unsuitable  for  ordinary  corks). 

The  regulations  3-  regarding  the  exploitation,  transport,  sale, 
and  exportation  of  tan  bark,  charcoal,  wood,  wood  ashes,  resin 
products,  and  sticks  for  canes  are  similar  to  the  restrictions 
placed  on  cork  commerce,  and  are  also  designed  to  prevent 
theft  by  making  it  obhgatory  on  the  temporary  owner  of  the 

^'  August  20,  1904. 

32  Refer  also  to  the  Algerian  Code,  p.  166. 


76  ALGERIA 

product  to  show  how  and  where  he  secured  the  material.  As 
an  additional  precaution  no  transport  is  allowed  at  night  without 
a  special  permit.  The  notice  of  exploitation  must  be  given 
at  least  three  months  in  advance.  Suitable  steps  are  prescribed 
to  make  sure  that  the  forests  classified  under  article  76  of  the 
Algerian  Code  of  1903  (see  page  179)  are  not  denuded.  In 
addition,  when  the  conservator  considers  it  necessary  he  can 
prescribe  felling  rules  for  private  loggers  to  cover  the  following 
points:  method  of  felling;  date  for  working  up  the  felled  ma- 
terial; date  when  the  removal  must  be  completed;  measures 
for  efficient  control;  protection  against  disastrous  grazing.  If 
no  restrictions  are  imposed  by  the  conservator  within  three 
months  after  notice,  then  the  owner  can  go  ahead  without 
further  permit;  certain  areas,  however,  are  exempted  from  the 
application  of  these  rules. 

Free  Use.  —  The  free  use  of  dead  wood,  diss,  palms,  and 
mast  is  personal  and  ordinarily  without  special  permit.  The 
right  holders  can  take  without  permit  dead  fallen  wood  or  dead 
branches  which  can  be  pulled  off  by  hand,  fallen  acorns,  or 
acorns  poled  down.  The  use  of  axes,  etc.,  in  securing  ordinary 
free-use  material  is  formally  forbidden. 

For  building  or  plow  material  the  mayors,  etc.,  draw  up  annual 
Hsts  which  are  submitted  to  the  local  forest  officer  in  charge. 
These  lists  give  the  names  and  residences  of  free-use  holders,  the 
amount  and  quality  of  timber  necessary  for  their  personal  needs, 
and  a  justification  of  the  free  grant.  After  the  local  officers 
investigate  each  case  the  conservators  approve  or  disapprove, 
taking  into  consideration  the  local  needs  and  the  yield  of  the 
forest.  This  class  of  wood  is  marked  and  estimated.  The 
right  holders  do  the  felhng  by  groups  and  the  local  tribal  chief 
is  held  responsible  for  damage.  After  felling,  the  proper  amounts 
are  divided.  The  governor  may  authorize  the  Forest  Service  to 
fell  the  timber,  but  the  right  holders  must  pay  the  cost  of  felling, 
utiHzation,  and  transport,  according  to  a  tariff  recommended  by 
the  Forest  Service  and  approved  by  the  prefect. 

Besides  group  permits,  individuals  may  be  granted  material 
by  an  inspector  in  emergency  cases,  such  as  arise  after  a  fire 


THE   FORESTATION   PROBLEM  77 

or  flood.  A  Strict  check  is  kept  on  the  use  of  the  timber  for  a 
year  following  the  felling.  Each  right  holder  is  required  to  do 
one  day's  work,  consisting  of  the  maintenance  of  the  forest  cut 
over,  in  return  for  each  cubic  metre  (35  cu.  ft.),  or  for  each 
100  poles  of  at  least  20  cm.  (8  inches)  in  circumference. 


THE   FORESTATION   PROBLEM 

Forestation.  —  In  Algeria,  as  in-  other  countries  where  vege- 
tation must  withstand  annual  and  periodic  droughts,  the  saying: 
*'It  is  much  better  to  protect  the  forests  that  exist  than  create 
anew,"  is  doubly  true.  Yet,  just  because  past  generations  have 
not  heeded  the  wisdom  contained  in  this  law,  it  has  become 
imperative  for  the  state,  now,  to  undertake  planting  on  a  gen- 
erous scale.  It  is  true  that  for  the  last  30  years  Algerian  for- 
esters have  studied  the  reforestation  problem;  yet  the  forests 
have  continued  to  decrease,  for  one  reason  because  there  has 
been  insufficient  money  for  extensive  planting  or  sowing.  Even 
under  the  present  more  Hberal  policies,  planting  or  sowing  is 
only  undertaken  where  trees  have  entirely  disappeared,  or  where 
there  is  not  the  sHghtest  chance  for  natural  regeneration. 

Notwithstanding  the  progress  already  made,  there  still  seems 
to  be  considerable  variation  in  planting  methods  used  in  the 
different  regions.  Nominally  there  is  a  chief  of  management 
and  reforestation,  but  under  the  present  organization  this  officer 
acts  in  an  advisory  capacity  and  is  not  in  a  position  to  enforce 
his  views  as  to  methods,  except  on  projects  which  are  under 
his  direction  —  a  fact  which  is  unfortunate  for  the  success  of 
planting  operations  as  a  whole. 

With  the  wet  winters  and  severe  dry  summers  of  Algeria  it 
is  universally  the  poHcy  to  plant  in  the  winter  after  the  rains 
have  commenced,  usually  in  December  and  January.  The  kind 
of  material  used  depends  on  the  species  to  be  planted  but  no- 
where are  costly  3  and  4  year-old  transplants  employed  as  in 
Germany  or  Austria.  In  the  case  of  the  coniferous  species, 
as  well  as  the  broadleaved  species,  sowing  is  preferred  to  plant- 
ing, but  nowhere  is  successful  sowing  possible  without  thorough 


78  ALGERIA 

soil  preparation,  preferably  in  strips  or  spots.  Owing  to  a 
series  of  past  failures  there  is  universal  prejudice  against  the 
shipment  of  any  plant  material  except  when  ball  plants  can  be 
economically  used.  Consequently  small  local  nurseries  are  in- 
variably preferred  where  water  for  irrigation  can  be  secured. 

Methods.^^  —  The  planting  of  aleppo  pine  is  very  difficult 
because  the  high  evaporation  seems  to  dry  out  the  seedling  be- 
fore the  roots  can  take  hold.  Nearly  all  the  plantations  made 
where  plants  with  bare  roots  were  employed  have  miscarried. 
Planting  appears  to  succeed  only  when  ball  plants  are  used. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  direct  seeding  generally  succeeds.  Seed 
spots  are  usually  made  0.40  m.  square  (16  inches)  and  2  to  3  metres 
(2  to  3  yards)  apart;  a  small  pinch  of  seed  is  sown  and  covered 
over  with  2  to  3  centimetres  (0.8  to  1.2  inches)  of  fine  soil. 
After  sowing,  the  seed  spot  is  covered  with  an  armful  of  brush. 
It  is  usually  a  good  plan  (when  the  slope  permits),  to  open  the 
spots  in  advance  and  let  the  air  percolate  the  soil  for  several 
months.     The  spot  is  filled  up  with  earth  when  seeded. 

The  cedar  usually  succeeds  by  direct  seeding  on  bare  soil 
if  it  is  light  and  not  packed;  but  it  cannot  succeed  where  there 
is  grass  or  weeds.  In  order  to  reforest  blanks  or  openings  in 
a  forest  of  cedar,  the  ground  should  be  wounded  before  the 
seed  falls  in  the  autumn.  This  can  be  readily  done  by  opening 
strips  30  to  40  centimetres  (12  to  16  inches)  wide  and  15  to 
20  centimetres  (5.9  to  7.8  inches)  deep.  If  there  are  no  seed 
trees,  strips  such  as  these  can  be  sown  by  hand  and  the  seed 
covered. 

The  oaks  (cork,  holm,  zeen,  etc.)  give  good  results  either  by 
direct  seeding  or  by  plantations.  The  latter  method  is  used 
when,  as  is  often  the  case,  there  is  danger  from  rabbits,  birds, 
mice,  or  rats.  For  the  direct  seeding,  seed  spots  are  made  in 
the  same  manner  as  for  aleppo  pine;  10  or  more  acorns  are 
then  sown  and  covered  with  4  to  5  centimetres  (about  2  inches) 
of  soil  and  an  armful  of  brush.  For  plantations,  one-year  seed- 
lings are  usually  employed.     It  has  been  pretty  definitely  proved 

'  ^^  Much  of  the  information  on  forestation  was  furnished  by  V.  Boutilly,  "le 
chef  du  Service  du  Reboisement." 


THE   FORESTATION   PROBLEM 


79 


that  where  cork  oak  is  sown  or  planted  on  brush-covered  ground, 
this  must  be  completely  cleared;  if  only  spots  or  lanes  are 
cleared  the  results  have  been  unsatisfactory.  These  losses  are 
probably  due  to  radiation  by  the  sun  and  the  consequent  in- 
tense heat,  because  the  air  cannot  circulate  freely.  It  is  also 
true  that  where  brush  is  only  partially  cleared  the  loss  from 
rodents  is  far  greater  than  on  wholly  cleared  areas. 

The  ash  is  usually  planted;  the  carob  tree  sown  directly; 
the  tamerisk  planted  by  cuttings;  the  cypress  and  thuya  by 
ball  (motte)  plants;  the  acacia  either  by  planting  or  direct 
seeding,  but  before  the  seed  of  this  tree  is  sown  boiling  water 
is  poured  over  it  and  allowed  to  stand  for  24  hours. 


TABLE  5.  — SOWING  DATA  ON  MORE 
SPECIES^* 

IMPORTANT 

ALGERIAN 

Name  of  species. 

Date  seed 
matures. 

Germina- 
tion vigor- 
ous for  — 

Time  to  sow. 

Date  of  germi- 
nation. 

Cedar  (C.  atlantica)  .  . 
Zeen  oak  {Q.mirbeckii) 
Cork  oak  {Q.  sjiber) .  . 
Holm  oak  {Q.  ilex) .  .  . 
Cypress  (C.  sempervirens) 
Aleppo  pine   (P.  hale- 
pens  is)                   .  ■ 

Oct.-Nov. 
Oct. 
Nov. 
Sept. 
Dec. -Jan. 

\  Sept. 

Nov. 

}  Nov. 

JAug.-Sept. 

Nov.-Dec. 
Oct.-Nov. 

Months. 
12 
6 
6 
6 

12 
12 

3 

I 

Nov.-Feb. 
Nov.-Feb. 

Nov.-Feb. 
Nov.-Feb. 
Nov.-Feb. 
End   Nov.      \ 
to  ist  Feb.  i 

Jan.-Mar.       < 

Jan.-Mar. 

Soon  after      | 
maturity     f 

Dec  .-Jan. 
Dec. 

Spring 
Spring 
Spring 
vSpring 
Spring 

Spring 

Pinon  pine  (P.  pinea) . 

Thuya  {Callistris  quad- 
rivalvis)                 .  . 

3    weeks    af- 
ter sowing 

Spring 

Carob  tree  {Ceratonia 
siliqua) 

Spring 

Juniper  (/.  phosnicea) . 
Olive 

Spring 

Forestation  Routine.  —  In  Algeria,  when  considering  the 
general  problem  of  reforestation  with  a  view  to  establishing  a 
new  project,  the  reasons  for  the  undertaking  must  first  be  ex- 
plained, it  must  be  shown  then  how  the  openings  originated, 
their  extent  described,  and  the  opportunity  for  natural  restock- 
ing estimated.  Besides  a  regular  description  of  the  altitude, 
slope,  soil,  and  soil  cover,  a  critical  review  must  be  given  justi- 


^<  Manuel  du  Planteur  d'arbres  en  Algerie,  1910. 
I'Algerie,  pp.  42-43. 


Ligue  du  Reboisement  de 


8o  ALGERIA 

fying  the  species,  the  methods,  the  time  of  sowing  or  planting, 
and  the  method  of  executing  the  work,  as,  for  example,  by 
advertisement,  contract,  agreement,  or  day  labor;  finally  and 
most  important  of  all,  the  results  of  similar  work  under  similar 
conditions  must  be  summarized  with  a  close  estimate  of  the 
cost. 

Before  the  actual  field  planting  is  approved,  a  report  is  sub- 
mitted showing  (i)  how  the  ground  will  be  prepared;  (2)  amount 
of  seed  or  number  of  plants,  their  source,  age,  and  spacing; 
(3)  method  to  be  used  in  sowing  or  planting;  (4)  areas  and 
amounts;  (5)  analysis  of  cost  with  a  recapitulation  showing 
area  to  be  stocked  and  the  total  cost.  These  data  are  used  in 
preparing  the  budget. 

For  each  nursery  the  annual  work  is  forecasted  by:  (i)  prep- 
aration of  the  soil;  (2)  seed,  method,  species,  amounts,  source, 
(3)  transplanting  or  suckers;  (4)  maintenance;  (5)  extraction, 
packing,  transport;  and  (6)  miscellaneous.  The  estimates  are 
classified  by  these  headings,  divided  into  (a)  labor  and  {b) 
material.  After  the  year's  expenditures  the  amounts  are  re- 
ported as  having  been  spent  under  the  above  classification. 

The  resources  of  each  nursery  are  recorded  by:  (i)  name; 
(2)  area;  (3)  species;  (4)  age;  (5)  total  amount;  (6)  quantity 
necessary  for  the  requirements  of  the  service;  (7-9)  amount 
available,  transplanted,  and  not  transplanted;  (10)  under  "re- 
marks" the  date  of  transplanting  may  be  recorded  and  the 
requirements  of  local  owners  for  planting  stock  noted. 

Experimental  Planting.  —  Perhaps  the  most  instructive  work 
in  Algerian  forestation  has  been  the  systematic  experiments 
carried  on  to  solve  the  aleppo-pine  reproduction  problem. 
While  the  experiments  themselves  are  limited  to  aleppo  pine, 
the  methods  are  of  general  application.  Half-hectare  (i-acre) 
plots  were  sowed  in  October,  19 10,  under  the  following  con- 
ditions : 

1.  No  soil  preparation;  debris  and  cones  distributed  evenly 
over  the  cutting  area;  cost  2.50  francs  ($0.48)  for  the  half 
hectare  (i  acre). 

2,  Fifteen  kilos  (33  pounds)  of  aleppo-pine  seed  sowed  broad- 


THE    FOREST ATION   PROBLEM  8 1 

cast  before  felling;  debris  regulariy  distributed  after  exploita- 
tion; cost  14.40  francs  ($2.78). 

3.  Debris  distributed  and  burned;  15  kilos  (33  pounds)  of 
aleppo-pine  seed  then  sowed;  cost  21.90  francs  ($4.23). 

4.  Special  manuring  and  sowing;  too  expensive  to  be  prac- 
tical; cost  78.05  francs  ($15.06). 

5.  After  felling,  strips  5  metres  (5.5  yards)  wide  and  5  metres 
(5.5  yards)  apart  were  mattocked  to  a  depth  of  10  cm.  (4 
inches).  Then  7  kilos  (15  pounds)  of  aleppo-pine  seed  per  hec- 
tare (2.5  acres)  were  sown  and  covered  with  debris;  cost  29.31 
francs  ($5.66). 

6.  After  felling,  furrows  were  plowed  30  to  35  cm.  (12  to  15 
inches)  wide  and  5  metres  (5.5  yards)  apart;  vegetation  had 
to  be  removed  by  hand  before  the  ground  could  be  plowed; 
6  kilos  (13  pounds)  of  aleppo-pine  seed  were  then  raked  into 
the  soil  and  covered  with  debris;  cost  23.31  francs  ($4.50). 

7.  Same  as  6,  only  by  seed  spots  30  by  40  cm.  (12  by  16 
inches),  3  metres  (3  yards)  apart,  and  25  to  30  cm.  (10  to  12 
inches)  aleppo  with  10  kilos  (22  pounds)  per  hectare;  cost  51.35 
francs  ($9.94). 

8.  Similar  to  4;  cost  89.05  francs  ($17.19). 

9.  Exotics  from  Mexico  were  sown  as  in  5  and  7.  The  spe- 
cies chosen  were  pinus  eduHs,  montezumae,  pseudostrobus,  and 
patula. 

These  experiments^^  are  to  be  continued  and  in  the  official 
records  are  shown  graphically  for  each  month,  since  the  date 
of  sowing,  on  the  basis  of  number  of  plants  per  seed  spot,  or 
per  square  metre.  The  sowing  took  place  under  unfavorable 
conditions,  because  in  19 10  there  were  no  rains  between  May 
and  the  end  of  December,  when  there  was  a  heavy  fall  of  snow, 
so  that  germination  did  not  commence  until  February  and 
March,  191 1;  further  germination  took  place  in  December,  191 1, 
and  January,  191 2,  and  after  the  rains  at  the  end  of  August 
and  September,  191 2. 

The  conservator  has  made  the  following  deductions  from  the 

^  Statement  and  graphic  records  on  cross-section  paper  by  Conservator  Laporte, 
dated  March,  1913. 


82  ALGERIA 

experiments:  i.  Sowing  should  be  early  in  the  fall  to  profit  by 
the  autumn  germination,  since  the  early  plants  are  better  able 
to  stand  the  drought  of  the  next  summer.  2.  The  amount  of 
seed  sown  can  safely  be  reduced  25  per  cent.  3.  The  brush 
cover  used  was  too  heavy,  for  on  certain  areas  it  suffocated 
the  seedlings  where  the  air  could  not  circulate  quite  freely; 
yet  a  brush  cover  seems  necessary  to  protect  the  seedlings 
against  birds  and  rabbits,  and  to  shade  them  from  the  sun. 
(Compare  with  Boutilly's  conclusions,  page  6.)  4.  The  cones 
from  debris  seem  to  open  slowly,  but  the  seed  apparently  re- 
tains its  germinating  power.^^ 

The  results  of  each  experiment  by  plots  were  as  follows: 

1.  Regeneration   incomplete   but   future   crop   seems   assured. 

2.  Results  satisfactory.  3.  Complete  failure  because  the  debris 
was  burned  too  completely;  the  seed  sown  was  not  protected 
from  the  sun  and  was  devoured  by  the  birds.  4.  Resulted  in 
failure  on  the  sandy  soil,  mediocre  on  clayey  lime  soil;  too 
expensive  to  be  practical.  5.  Very  mediocre  results  on  sand, 
satisfactory  on  clayey  lime  soil.  6.  Results  very  satisfactory. 
7.  Failure  on  sand,  satisfactory  on  clayey  lime  soil,  but  the 
results  are  below  5  and  6  and  the  cost  higher;  therefore,  this 
method  should  rarely  be  used.     8.  Mediocre,  cost  heavy. 

Thus  methods  i,  2,  5,  and  6  have  thus  far  given  the  best 
results;  namely,  scattering  the  debris  after  an  ordinary  felHng; 
sowing  broadcast  before  exploitation;  prepared  strips  seeded 
after  feUing;  furrows  seeded  after  felHng.  No.  7  succeeded, 
but  cost  more  than  furrows  or  strips.  These  experiments  are 
suggestive  of  what  might  be  accomplished,  through  similar  oper- 
ations, in  the  United  States. 

Forestation  Projects.  —  At  Constantine  the  conservator  has 
undertaken  some  difficult  forestation.  Here  seed  spots  are 
used,  30  by  30  centimetres  (12  by  12  inches)  and  40  centimetres 
(16  inches)  deep,  preferably  prepared  3  or  more  months  before 
sowing  or  planting.  The  two  principal  species  used  are  cork 
oak  and  aleppo  pine.     With  dry  soil,  where  acorns  are  sown, 

^  The  aleppo  pine  is  like  lodgepole  pine  inasmuch  as  its  cones  open  readily 
after  a  light  fire  and  seed  prolifically. 


THE    FORESTATION   PROBLEM  83 

each  spot  is  artificially  drained.  At  least  6  to  9  acorns,  treated 
with  alumina,  are  planted  in  each  spot,  since  some  loss  is  ex- 
pected from  rats,  rabbits,  and  partridges.  Wide  spacing,  5  by  5 
metres  (5.5  by  5.5  yards),  is  recommended  in  order  to  reduce 
the  cost  per  hectare  (2.5  acres)  to  150  francs  ($28.95).  On  the 
same  soil,  8-months-old  aleppo-pine  seedHngs,  raised  in  a  purely 
local  nursery,  were  planted  on  mounds  prepared  in  advance. 
From  3  to  4  seedlings  were  placed  in  the  same  mound,  as  a  pre- 
caution against  total  loss.  The  entire  planting  site  was  pro- 
tected by  a  cleared  fire  line.  During  a  favorable  year  75  to  95 
per  cent  of  the  stock  survives,  but  during  a  drought  less  than 
one-half  remains  aHve;  and  curiously  enough  the  best  success 
has  been  obtained  along  the  ridges  where  the  air  can  circulate. 
The  object  of  the  planting  is  an  endeavor  to  modify  the  chmate 
of  Constantine  rather  than  to  raise  a  commercial  forest. 

At  Bainen,  near  Algiers,  forestation  has  been  undertaken 
on  a  large  scale  since  1880,  partly  to  furnish  a  recreation  forest 
and  partly  to  temper  the  Algiers  climate.  The  cost  of  this 
planting  has  averaged  at  least  100  francs  ($19.30)  per  hectare 
(2.5  acres),  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  fagots  from  the 
brush  cleared  sell  for  2  francs  ($0,386)  per  100.  It  is  chiefly 
cork  oak  and  aleppo  pine,  although  some  eucalyptus  (globulus 
and  red  gum),  pinon,  and  juniper  have  been  tried  on  a  small 
scale.     The  eucalyptus  is  limited  to  the  best  soils. 

The  cork  oak  and  aleppo  pine  are  sown  and  planted  in  strips 
0.80  metre  (31  inches)  wide  and  2  to  2.5  metres  (2  to  3  yards) 
apart.  These  strips  run  on  contours,  so  as  to  collect  and  hold 
all  surplus  water;  2  to  3  acorns  are  placed  in  each  hole,  but 
only  one  aleppo-pine  seedling  i  year  old.  No  brush  cover  is 
used.  The  young  stands  are  cut  by  lo-metre  (ii-yard)  fire  lines, 
which,  by  the  way,  should  have  been  planned  before  the  planta- 
tion was  begun,  instead  of  being  cut  through  the  young  sapling 
stands.  Certain  stands  have  been  pruned  as  a  further  protective 
measure. 

At  the  Bois  de  Boulogne  nursery  at  Mustapha  Superieur, 
above  Algiers,  i-year  cedar  seedhngs  have  been  raised.  The 
Eucalyptus  (globulus)  is  transplanted,  two  months  after  sowing. 


84  ALGERIA 

into  pots,  and  when  i  year  old,  is  set  out  in  the  forest,  but 
watered  when  planted.  One-year  aleppo-pine  seedlings,  and 
I -year  cypress  seedlings  are  also  successfully  grown.  In  this 
nursery  there  were  also  Acacia  lophantha,  pycnantha,  and  mela- 
noxylon,  which  are  rapid  in  growth,  drought  resisting,  and  ex- 
cellent for  holding  soil  on  steep  slopes. 

Perhaps  the  most  difficult  planting  problem  in  Algeria  is  at 
Orleansville,  where  the  annual  rainfall  is  less  than  500  mm. 
with  a  dry  season  extending  from  March  i  to  October  i,  coupled 
with  45°  to  48°  C.  (113°  to  118°  F.)  of  heat  and  dry  sirocco 
winds.  The  soil  cakes  badly  and  is  easily  dried  out.  This 
forestation  was  begun  by  the  Army,  for  health  and  climatic 
reasons,  as  early  as  1852.  The  results  prove  clearly  that  in  a 
dry  climate,  where  trees  have  to  fight  against  adverse  natural 
conditions,  high  costs  and  repeated  failures  are  the  rule,  with 
periodic  success  only  during  favorable  years. 

The  nursery  is  situated  in  the  middle  of  an  area  already  re- 
forested, where  the  trees  form  an  excellent  windbreak.  The 
aleppo-pine  seedHngs  are  raised  on  mounds  20.3  centimetres  (8 
inches)  high,  with  subsoil  irrigation  between  the  rows. 

In  the  Kefofsa  canton  the  ditch  method  is  used  on  slopes, 
for  by  this  plan  water  is  collected  and  held  in  the  ditches  till  it 
penetrates  the  soil.  The  planting  ditches,  3  metres  (3  yards) 
apart,  run  on  contours.  They  are  60  cm.  (23  inches)  wide  and 
60  cm.  (23  inches)  deep,  but  after  the  best  of  the  soil  is  filled 
in  a  depression  20  to  30  cm.  (8  to  12  inches)  below  the  surface 
remains.  The  plants  are  usually  set  near  the  south  side  of  this 
depression,  to  gain  shelter  from  the  sun.  The  ditches  must  be 
weeded  for  the  first  two  years,  sometimes  twice  a  year. 

On  the  tops  of  hills,  for  example  in  the  Sidi  Bagdad  canton, 
and  where  the  ditch  method  cannot  be  used  because  of  surface 
rock,  spots  are  made  about  61  cm.  (2  feet)  in  diameter  and 
60  cm.  (23  inches)  deep,  and  spaced  3  metres  (3  yards).  The 
average  cost  is  160  francs  ($30.88)  per  hectare  and  usually  50 
per  cent  success  can  be  counted  on,  but  with  a  winter  drought 
and  frosts  alternating  with  the  hot  midday  sun,  the  loss  may 
be  complete.     With  very  dry  ground  the  local  inspector  would 


THE    FORESTATION    PROBLEM 


Fig.  13.  —  Bird's-eye  view  of  an  important  plantation  near  Orleansville,  Algeria. 


Fig.  14.  —  Near  view  of  Orleansville  plantation  illustrating  wide  spacing  used 
in  the  contour  furrow  method  oi  pUntmg.  Evidently  an  exact  contour  has 
not  been  followed. 


86  ALGERIA 

prefer  the  use  of  pots,  but  this  is  too  expensive;  the  main  losses 
with  seedlings  are  due  to  the  evaporation  of  the  leaves  before 
the  roots  can  get  a  hold,  and  where  feasible  the  young  plants 
are  thoroughly  watered  when  set  out.  The  chief  species  em- 
ployed are:  aleppo-pine  seedlings;  olive  seed;  carob-tree  seed. 
Autumn  sowing  or  planting  is  usually  before  the  rains  set  in. 

At  Aran  98  per  cent  of  the  forestation  has  been  accompHshed 
by  the  use  of  aleppo  pine.  Here  the  brush  is  cleared  in  the 
spring  by  strips  and  the  soil  left  fallow  until  the  autumn,  when 
the  seed  is  sown.  It  is  covered  with  a  layer  of  soil  5  to  6  centi- 
metres (about  2  inches)  thick,  and  a  protective  cover  of  brush. 

The  specifications  ^^  for  reforestation  of  180  hectares  (444 
acres)  in  the  forest  of  Bon  Rahma  (chefferie  of  Mostaganem) 
were:  complete  brushing  of  strips,  2.50  metres  (3  yards)  wide, 
separated  by  uncleared  strips  10  metres  (11  yards)  wide.  Sown: 
122  kilos  (268  pounds)  of  aleppo  pine,  100  kilos  (220  pounds) 
of  maritime  pine,  150  kilos  (330  pounds)  of  miscellaneous  species, 
or  about  8  kilos  (17  pounds)  per  hectare  (2.5  acres). 

The  seed  is  sown  broadcast  on  the  strips  cleared  and  is  lightly 
worked  5  to  6  centimetres  (about  2  inches)  into  the  soil.  The 
cleared  strips  are  then  covered  with  brush.  The  total  cost  is 
estimated  at  9625.20  francs  ($1857.66),  or  httle  more  than  53 
francs  ($10.23)  an  hectare  (2.5  acres).  On  a  near-by  mountain 
where  the  soil  was  very  dry,  they  had  to  use  aleppo-pine  ball 
plants.  The  local  conservator's  office  recommends  leaving 
aleppo-pine  seed  for  a  few  seconds  in  boihng  water  prior  to 
sowing.  For  dry  clayey  ground  they  are  using  the  oHve;  for 
marls  the  thuya;  for  sandy  soils  the  aleppo  pine  and  Phoenician 
juniper. 

The  Hamiz  reboisement  area^^  is  being  forested  with  cork 
oak  and  aleppo  pine.  Some  10  to  12  cork-oak  acorns  are  sown 
in  seed  spots  50  centimetres  (20  inches)  square  and  50  centi- 
metres (20  inches)  deep,  spaced  4  metres  (4  yards)  apart. 
The  brush  is  cleared  on  an  area  2  metres  (2  yards)  square 
around  each  spot,  and  must  be  cut  back  after  2  to  3  years  to 

^^  Devis  Descriptif,  travaux  neufs,  Bon  Rahma. 

38  Information  furnished  in  the  field  by  Ranger  Henri  Chazalette. 


MISCELLANEOUS   ACTIVITIES  87 

prevent  suppression.  In  more  recent  operations  the  brush  is 
cleared  on  the  entire  area,  instead  of  by  narrow  strips  or  by 
seed  spots;  when  this  is  done  there  is  less  damage  from  mice 
and  rats  and  the  air  can  circulate  better,  for  even  when  the  oak 
acorn  is  treated  the  rats  wait  until  it  germinates  and  then  re- 
turn to  devour  the  young  cotyledon.  The  aleppo  pine  is  also 
sown  in  similar  spots  since  the  results  of  plantations  were  found 
unsatisfactory. 

MISCELLANEOUS   ACTIVITIES 

Research.  —  The  North  African  Forest  Research  Station 
was  estabhshed  by  the  Governor  General's  decree  of  Dec.  29, 
1911.  The  station  is  under  the  direction  of  the  conservator 
for  the  pro\dnce  of  Algiers,  who  is  also  director  of  forests. 
The  officer  in  charge  of  the  station  is  also  charged  with  the 
administration  of  the  Algiers  District,  but  is  given  a  supple- 
mentary pay  of  1500  francs  ($289.50).  No  need  here  is  felt 
for  a  complicated  organization,  at  least  until  the  formative 
period  is  over.  The  field  of  work  includes  not  only  Algeria, 
but  Tunisia  and  Morocco. 

The  general  objectives  ^^  of  the  research  studies  are  to  con- 
serve and  increase  the  forested  area,  to  increase  the  revenue 
from  federal  forests,  and  to  collect  and  pubhsh  the  results. 
With  this  in  view  a  number  of  specific  Hnes  of  work  have 
already  been  determined  upon: 

I.  Forest  meteorology:  systematic  observations  in  the  dif- 
ferent forest  regions  in  order  to  determine  the  climatic  require- 
ments of  the  different  types,  especially  as  regards  humidity. 
2.  Forest  soil :  a  study  of  how  the  different  species  are  influenced 
in  their  distribution  by  the  various  soils.  3.  Reproduction: 
how  to  extend  forest  areas  by  natural  means  and  the  factors 
influencing  natural  and  artificial  regeneration.  4.  Increase  in 
cork-oak  production:  a  study  of  how  the  producing  capacity 
of  cork-oak  forests  can  be  increased  and  the  quahty  improved, 
as  well  as  a  study  of  diseases.     5.   Management:    growth  of 

^  Bulletin  de  la  Station  de  Recherches  Forestieres  du  nord  de  I'Afrique,  Dec. 
5,  1912. 


88  ALGERIA 

trees  and  stands,  establishment  of  sample  plots  to  study  the 
effect  of  spacing,  thinnings,  etc.,  construction  of  volume  tables, 
experimental  development  of  secondary  industries,  such  as  resin 
production.  6.  Scientific  ecological  studies.  7.  Accumulation 
of  a  library,  data  on  each  species  for  reference,  natural  history 
collections.  8.  Arrangement  and  publication:  the  bulletins, 
whenever  they  are  original  and  when  valuable  data  are  available, 
will  be  published  at  irregular  intervals,  and  will  be  prepared 
for  free  distribution  in  Europe  and  in  America. 

Forest  Museum.  —  The  Algerian  Forest  Service  has  equipped 
an  admirable  Forest  Museum  at  Algiers,  lodged  in  a  rustic  log 
building.  The  exhibits  include:  local  faunae,  with  a  number  of 
hides  and  horns,  stuffed  birds,  an  excellent  herbarium,  wood 
products,  manufactured  and  crude  cork,  poKshed  tree  sections, 
maps  and  graphic  charts,  models  of  ranger  stations,  and  photo- 
graphs and  stereoscopic  motion  pictures  of  the  foresters  at 
work.  The  official  catalogue  gives  information  in  regard  to 
the  forests  of  Algeria.  The  advertising  value  of  such  a  museum 
as  this  is  at  once  apparent. 

Grazing.  —  There  are  two  distinct  grazing  zones.  One  in- 
cludes the  coast  zone  of  Constantine  and  Kabylie,  where  the 
rainfall  is  sufficient  to  allow  the  forests  to  recover  rapidly  from 
grazing  damage.  Here  the  fire  is  the  greatest  danger  to  such 
continuous  stands.  The  other,  much  more  important,  includes 
all  the  forests  of  the  High  Plateau  and  the  rest  of  Algeria,  where, 
owing  to  the  small  rainfall,  the  forests  are  damaged  even  by 
moderate  grazing. 

These  forests  are  grazed  free  under  rights  or  under  paid  per- 
mits, and  out  of  some  1.7  million  hectares  (4,200,700  acres) 
only  700,000  hectares  (1,729,700  acres)  are  closed  to  entry, 
because  of  fires,  recent  fellings,  and  overgrazing.  Yet  there  is 
need  for  still  larger  areas  for  stock;  consequently  the  natives 
must  be  taught  to  keep  the  ordinary  grazing  areas  in  as  pro- 
ductive a  state  as  possible.  The  enormous  amount  of  trespass 
means  that  a  greater  patrol  force  must  be  maintained. 

Under  present  conditions  the  tax  on  goats  is  too  small  in 
comparison  with  cattle,  being  0.25  franc  ($0.05)  each,  where  the 


MISCELLANEOUS   ACTIVITIES  89 

average  value  per  head  is  12  francs  ($2.32),  as  against  a  tax  of 
3.33  francs  ($0.64)  for  a  steer  worth  80  to  100  francs  ($15.44  to 
$19.30).  To  discourage  this  form  of  grazing,  the  rate  on  goats 
should,  therefore,  be  increased  as  was  done  so  successfully  in 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovinia. 

In  all  there  are  some  i.i  milHon  hectares  (2,700,000  acres) 
open  to  grazing  and  of  this  area  sheep  are  allowed  on  600,000 
hectares  (1,500,000  acres). 

Owing  to  abuses  of  the  privilege  the  gathering^  of  alfa  in 
the  High  Plateau  was  forbidden  from  March  i  to  July  i,  and 
for  the  Tell  from  January  16  to  May  15.  On  slopes  bordering 
the  deserts  and  chotts  (salt  water  lakes)  the  country  is  divided 
into  three  zones,  two  of  which  are  closed  to  harvest  each  year. 
The  collection  is  restricted  to  rolling  or  level  land.  Where 
damage  has  been  done  collection  is  forbidden  on  sand.  The 
gathering  of  alfa  can  be  only  by  hand  or  by  small  sticks,  and 
its  use  for  fuel  is  forbidden.  This  pohcy,  the  result  of  experience, 
serves  to  illustrate  the  need  of  precautions  where  an  industry 
denudes  soil  that  is  thus  rendered  Hable  to  erosion  by  wind  or 
water. 

Forest  Houses.  —  Three  distinct  types  of  forest  houses  are 
constructed  by  the  Forest  Service  in  Algeria.  In  constructing 
a  house  of  the  first  type,  the  ground  floor  plan  allows  for  two 
adjoining  bedrooms,  a  small  room  for  the  inspecting  ranger,  a 
hall,  kitchen,  a  large  room  for  visiting  ofhcers,  and  a  loft  for 
storage.  It  opens  into  a  walled  courtyard,  which  could  be 
used  for  defence  in  time  of  war,  and  which  surrounds  a  forge, 
tool  room,  loft,  cellar,  and  stable.  This  arrangement,  which  has 
been  found  especially  convenient,  is  shown  in  Fig.  10. 

A  second  type  has  a  courtyard  arrangement  similar  to  the 
first,  but  only  two  adjoining  rooms  in  addition.  These  are 
within  a  hall  and  run  parallel  with  the  kitchen.  This  second 
arrangement  is  now  flexible  and  is  only  suited  for  one  employee. 

A  third  plan  provides  for  two  families  and  is  virtually  two 
one-family  houses  separated  by  a  masonry  wall  which  cuts  the 
courtyard  in  two,  so  that  each  family  has  its  separate  abode. 
*"  Decree  of  Aug.  20,  1904;  see  Arts.  134,  139,  140. 


QO  ALGERIA 

One  section  contains  the  officer's  and  the  other  the  rangers' 
quarters;  each  wing  has,  besides,  two  bedrooms  and  a  kitchen. 

All  these  permanent  houses  are  built  of  stone,  cement,  tiles, 
and  iron,  which  renders  them  fireproof  and  requires  the  mini- 
mum of  repairs.  The  cost  of  each  of  the  three  types  averages : 
(i)  ii,ooo  to  12,000  francs  ($2123  to  $2316);  (2)  15,000  to 
17,000  francs  ($2895  to  $3281);  (3)  25,000  to  26,000  francs 
($4825  to  $5018). 

Trespass.  —  Trespass  has  been  the  bane  of  the  Algerian 
Forest  Service,  because  it  has  taken  up  a  great  part  of  the  forest 
officers'  time  when  it  was  required  for  much  needed  constructive 
administration.  One  of  the  contributing  causes  to  this  un- 
fortunate situation  is  the  attempt  made  to  enforce  legislation 
which  is  not  adapted  to  local  conditions.  As  a  result  the  vast 
number  of  indicted  trespass  cases  have  so  clogged  the  wheels 
of  administration  that  prompt  action  cannot  be  depended  upon. 
As  late  as  1903  even  the  fines  imposed  could  not  be  collected. 

The  1903  code  has  been  better  suited  to  local  conditions  and 
has  given  more  adaptable  and  flexible  penalties.  Yet  by  the 
most  recent  published  statistics  ^^  there  were  29,707  current 
trespass  cases,  classed  as  follows:  grazing,  13,034;  wood  and 
cork,  7232;  crude  bark,  143;  illegal  settlement,  cultivation, 
and  boundaries,  864;  hunting,  234;  minor  products,  719;  fire, 
653;  Hghting  fires  in  or  near  forests  contrary  to  law,  530; 
abandonment  of  lookout  posts,  1502;  construction  or  camping 
within  prohibited  distance,  396;  miscellaneous,  351;  denuding 
private  forests,  369;  violation  of  the  forest  decree  of  Aug.  20, 
1904,  3672. 

In  order  to  unify  and  standardize  the  methods  used  in  han- 
dling trespass  cases,  and  to  supplement  official  instructions  and 
decrees,  a  trespass  handbook  was  pubUshed^-  in  1910.  But 
with  a  native  population  unused  to  restraint  in  grazing  and  in 
the  use  of  wild  land,  it  will  be  years  before  the  trespass  situation 
is  satisfactorily  settled. 

''I  Statistique  Generale  de  I'Algerie,  1910,  p.  299. 

^  Recherche  et  Constatation  des  Delits  Forestieres  et  de  chasse,  par  A.  Lanoir, 
1910. 


FIRE   PROTECTION  AND   CONTROL  91 

FIRE   PROTECTION   AND  CONTROL 

Fire  Protection.  - —  As  in  Tunisia  (see  page  26)  fire  protection 
is  concentrated  on  the  valuable  cork-oak  forests,  but  in  Algeria 
stands  of  other  species  as  well  are  being  placed  under  intensive 
protection;  the  aleppo  pine,  for  example,  which  is  being  de- 
veloped to  yield  a  revenue  from  turpentine.  Notwithstanding 
the  efforts  which  have  been  made  to  curtail  fire  damage,  the 
annual  loss  is  still  considerable,  and  most  fires,  even  now,  are 
caused  by  incendiarism.  During  the  year  19 10  the  general 
statistics  of  Algeria  show  a  total  of  482  fires  on  24,294  hectares, 
(60,030  acres),  causing  a  damage  of  411,287  francs  ($79,378.39), 
of  which  97,212  francs  ($18,761.92)  of  damage  was  on  private 
forests. 

The  Algerian  cHmate  is  chiefly  responsible  for  the  extremely 
dangerous  fire  conditions  that  prevail,  because  of  the  prolonged 
droughts  during  the  hot  months,  and  the  inflammable  conditions 
of  the  underbrush  during  these  periods. 

Preventive  Measures.  —  To  supplement  the  fire  laws  given 
in  the  Algerian  Code  (see  Appendix,  especially  Arts.  123,  125 
126,  127,  128,  129,  132,  136,  139,  and  140),  the  Governor 
of  Algeria  approved,  August  20,  1904,  special  regulations;  the 
more  important  provisions  have  been  digested  under  these 
headings: 

(i)  Use  of  fire;  (2)  setting  fires;  (3)  organization  of  patrol 
service;  (4)  general  rules. 

(i)  Use  of  fire:  From  July  i  to  October  31  every  building 
where  fires  are  lighted,  within  200  metres  (218  yards)  of  a  forest, 
must  be  surrounded  with  a  cleared  fire  line  25  metres  (27  yards) 
wide.  Temporary  camps,  etc.,  must  also  be  encircled  by  a  dry 
stone  wall  i  metre  (40  inches)  high,  with  but  one  opening  not  to 
exceed  80  centimetres  (31  inches)  in  width,  or  with  a  ditch  50 
centimetres  (20  inches)  deep,  and  an  earth  wall  of  the  same 
height.  Mine  furnaces  may  be  established  and  steam  road 
rollers  used  only  upon  special  authorization.  Railroads  will 
be  informed  what  rights-of-way  must  be  cleared  in  accordance 
with  Article  132  (see  page  193). 


92  ALGERIA 

(2)  Setting  fires:  From  November  i  to  June  30,  no  vegetation 
may  be  burned  within  a  kilometre  (1094  yards)  of  a  forest,  with- 
out formal  request  made  at  least  8  days  in  advance.  If  within 
200  metres  (218  yards)  of  a  forest,  the  local  official  may  grant 
permission  to  burn  brush  only  after  recommendation  by  the 
proper  forest  officer,  who  prescribes  also  suitable  precautions, 
such  as  fire  lines,  watchers,  area  to  be  burned  at  one  time,  time 
to  set  fire,  etc.  The  officer  sent  to  control  the  operations  can 
stop  the  burning  or  impose  additional  precautions  at  any  time, 
in  case  of  high  wind.  From  July  i  to  October  31,  no  brush  burn- 
ing can  be  permitted  within  a  kilometre  (1094  yards)  of  a  forest. 
An  exception  may  be  made  where  brush  is  piled,  even  within 
500  metres  (546  yards),  under  the  same  conditions  imposed 
within  the  200-metre  (218-yard)  zone  from  November  i  to 
June  30.  Commencing  with  October  i,  the  conservation  may 
recommend  more  lenient  provisions.  Whenever  brush  clearing 
by  firing  is  carried  out  within  4  kilometres  (2.5  miles)  of  the 
forest,  supervision  is  necessary  after  8  days'  notice.  Native 
officers  are  required  to  report  violations  of  these  regulations. 

(3)  Organization  of  patrol  service:  From  July  i  to  November 
I,  special  native  watchers  are  levied  on  local  right  holders  and 
neighboring  tribes.  All  able-bodied  natives  are  hable.  Their 
duties  consist  of  notifying  the  proper  official  of  fire,  or  if  possible, 
to  put  out  any  fires  discovered.  This  watch  service  must  in- 
clude, night  and  day,  2  men  on  foot  and  one  on  horseback, 
or,  if  the  lookout  point  is  inaccessible,  three  men  on  foot. 

In  the  cork-oak  region  patrol  crews  of  5  men,  fully  equipped 
with  fire-fighting  tools,  must  be  provided;  these  are  under  the 
orders  of  the  local  forest  officer.  Lookout-points  and  patrol 
routes  are  established  by  the  Forest  Service.  In  case  of  rains 
and  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  conservator,  the  work  of 
these  crews  may  cease  on  October  i . 

(4)  General  rules:  The  procedure  for  enforcing  these  rules, 
as  well  as  a  fist  of  the  officers  who  are  responsible,  are  given. 

To  clinch  the  provisions  of  this  decree  a  circular  "^  of  instruc- 
tions explains  the  need  of  cooperation  between  the  Forest  Service 
"  Circulaire  du  4  Juin,  1907. 


FIRE   PROTECTION   AND   CONTROL  93 

and  the  local  officials.  The  conservators  are  required  to  report 
to  the  governor,  through  the  prefect  or  the  generals  command- 
ing divisions  in  which  forests  are  under  mihtary  control,  the 
trips  taken  in  the  forests  by  local  officials  and  the  arrangements 
made  for  controlKng  fires.  Natives  must  be  fully  informed  of 
all  iire  regulations,  since  ignorance  does  not  excuse  or  repair 
damage.  Definite  instructions  are  laid  down  in  regard  to  pro- 
visioning fire  fighters.  In  exposed  regions  a  central  lookout 
station,  commanding  the  others,  has  been  found  efficacious, 
but  telephone  hnes  are  only  established  in  cases  of  exceptional 
danger. 

Another  plan  which  has  been  put  into  effect  is  to  concentrate 
improvement  work  during  the  dry  season,  when  the  workman 
can  be  used  for  fire  fighting.  The  railroad  rights-of-way,  in 
that  plan,  are  put  under  surveillance,  to  make  certain  that  the 
required  fire  hnes  are  cleared.  Assistant  prefects,  mayors,  ad- 
ministrators, and  Forest  Service  officers  must  report  their  patrol 
trips  directly  to  the  governor;  leave  between  the  dangerous 
fire  season  is  only  allowed  in  case  of  sickness.  Military  detach- 
ments, during  the  critical  season,  supplement  the  forest  personnel 
and  work  in  cooperation  with  them.  In  case  of  conflagrations 
immediate  telegraphic  advice  is  sent  in  case  additional  help  is 
required. 

Those  reporting  on  fires  are  cautioned  not  to  exaggerate 
damages;  all  details  must  be  personally  investigated  and  a 
prehminary  report  must  first  be  despatched  giving  the  general 
direction  of  the  fire,  kind  of  forests  burned,  attitude  of  local 
residents,  assistance  given  by  them,  and  protective  measures 
taken.  The  final  report  of  inquiry  includes:  (a)  General  data 
on  the  fire;  (b)  Damage  caused;  (c)  Conduct  of  local  residents 
and  their  assistance  in  putting  out  the  fire;  (d)  Causes  of  the 
fire.  It  is  especially  emphasized  in  the  circular  summarized  that 
rapid  action  in  bringing  fire  trespassers  to  court  will  have  the 
best  possible  effect  on  stamping  out  this  evil. 

Fire  Lines.  —  The  basis  of  the  Algerian  fire-protective  scheme 
is  the  system  of  fire  fines.  These  are  ordinarily  built  along 
crests  or  ridges,  but  also  follow  wagon  roads  and  paths  which 


94 


ALGERIA 


contour  the  hills.  They  are  rarely,  if  ever,  in  ravines,  except 
when  a  boundary  happens  to  follow  the  bed  of  a  stream.  Their 
width  is  5,  lo,  15,  20,  25,  30,  40,  50,  100  (5,  10,  16,  21,  27,  32, 
43,  54,  109  yards)  and  even  300  metres  (328  yards),  according 
to  the  problems  presented;  along  railroads  the  official  width  is 
20  metres  (21  yards)  on  each  side.  Boundary  lines  are  ordina- 
rily 10  metres  (10  yards)  wide,  but  in  well-wooded  country  may 


Fig.  15. 


Cork  oak  after  the  cork  has  been  removed,  on  a  ridge  fire  line  in 
Algeria,  Constantine  Conservation. 


be  as  high  as  25  (27  yards);  these  are  constructed  half  on  each 
of  the  adjoining  properties. 

In  theory  main  fire  fines  are  100  metres  (109  yards)  and  sec- 
ondary lines  25  or  50  metres  (27  or  54  yards),  according  to  the 
value  of  the  stand.  But  this  standard  is  flexible.  At  La  Calle, 
where  dangerous  conditions  exist  in  valuable  cork  oak,  there 
is  a  line  300  metres  (328  yards)  wide.  Yet  in  the  Oran  con- 
servation, where  there  is  but  little  cork  oak,  there  are  no  fines 
whatever  wider  than  50  metres  (54  yards),  and  out  of  a  total 
of  386,164  metres  (422,313  yards)  of  fines  there  are  classified 
as  follows  in  metres  and  yards: 


FIRE   PROTECTION   AND    CONTROL 

TABLE  6 


95 


Width. 

Total  length. 

Width. 

Total  length. 

Metres. 

Yards. 

Metres. 

Yards. 

Metres 

Yards. 

Metres. 

Yards. 

5 
lO 

15 

20 

5 
II 
16 
22 

1.538 
84.524 
43.253 
89.987 

1,682 
92.436 
47.302 
98,411 

25 
30 
40 
50 

27 
33 
44 
55 

36,724 
95.745 
19.238 
15.155 

40,162 

104,708 

21,039 

16,574 

It  is  an  invariable  rule  in  Algeria  to  clear  the  lines  once  every 
3  years;  but  there  are  Hnes  where  the  brush  is  only  cut  level 
with  the  ground  and  others  where  the  roots  are  extracted. 

An  official  note  prepared  for  me  by  Conservator  Laporte 
of  Oran,  dated  March,  1913,  states:  "...  These  fire  Hnes 
are  opened  on  the  ridges  which  are  found  in  the  interior  of 
forests  so  as  to  locahze  the  conflagrations  and  to  make  it  pos- 
sible to  stop  the  fire  when  it  arrives  at  one  of  these  lines.  ..." 
The  fire  Unes  are  made  (i)  either  by  simply  cutting  level  with 
the  ground  the  woody  vegetation  which  is  found  on  its  surface; 
or  (2)  by  completely  uprooting  these  trees.  This  latter  class 
of  Une  takes  less  upkeep,  when  the  sprouts  coming  from  stumps 
overlooked  are  rare,  but  it  costs  much  more  to  open.  The  fire 
lines  made  by  simple  clearings  are  far  less  expensive,  but  the 
growth  of  suckers  and  shoots  require  a  periodic  upkeep  which 
occasions  a  considerable  expense.  In  these  fire  lines,  all  trees, 
including  the  undergrowth,  are  cut  off  or  pulled  up;  though 
occasionally,  on  lines  of  a  considerable  width,  a  fine  tree  well 
separated  from  the  others  may  be  left  when  it  is  encountered. 
It  is,  however,  an  exception  to  the  general  practice. 

Table  7  gives  the  fire  lines  in  the  Oran  conservation: 


96 


ALGERIA 


TABLE   7.  — TABULATION   OF    FIRE 
VATION  OF  ORAN,  ON   STATE 


LINES    IN    THE    CONSER- 
FORESTS,  JAN.  i,  1913 


Area, 
hectares 
(acres). 

Chief 
species. 

Fire  lines. 

Name  of  forest. 

Length, 
metres 
(yards). 

Width, 
metres 
(yards). 

Cost  of  con- 
struction. 

francs 
(dollars) 

Remarks. 

Louza 

3.933 

(9.718)' 

Aleppo  pine 

6,650 
(7,272)2 

20 

(22)2 

2,147.29 
($414  43) 

Stump  extraction 

Guetarnia 

9.47? 
(23.407) 

Aleppo  pine 
with  thuya 

6,500 
(7,108) 

20 
(22) 

3,200  00 
($617  60) 

Stump  extraction 

6.933 
(17,131) 

Aleppo  pine 
with  thuya 

(7!79i) 

4.800 

(5.249) 

19.965 

(21,833) 

3.800 

(4,155) 

40 
(44) 

30 
(33) 

20 
(22) 

10 
(II) 

4.345  82 
($838  74) 

2,436.00 
($470.15) 

3.219.38 

($621  34) 

760  00 

($146  68) 

Moxi 

788 
(1.947) 

Aleppo  pine 
with  thuya 

(1,068) 

40 
(44) 

622.08 

($120  06) 

Stump  extraction 

Tenira 

8,838 
(21,838) 

Aleppo  pine 
with  thuya 

6,456 

(7.158) 

14.445 

(15.797) 

40 
(44) 

20 
(22) 

3.956  50 

($763.60) 
4,630.50 
($89368) 

Stump  extraction 

Bou  Yetas 

Aleppo  pine 
with  thuya 

(8,085) 

l7!48o 
(19.116) 

20 
(22) 

10 
(II) 

2.756  70 
($532  04) 

2.836.85 
($547  51) 

Stump  extraction 

Kounteida 

4,261 
(10,528) 

1  Aleppo  pine 
with  thuya 

6,800 
(7,436) 

15 
(16) 

2,747  48 
($530  26) 

Stump  extraction 

16,687 
(41.233) 

Aleppo  pine 
with  thuya 

7.000 
(7.655) 

1.950 
(2,132) 

6.800 
(7,436) 

30 
(33) 

20 
(22) 

15 
(16) 

4.038  55 
($779  44) 

1,218   20 
($235    II) 

2.748.48 
($530   45) 

Slissen 

35.849 
(88.582) 

.\leppo  pine 
with  thuya 

4.680 

(5. 118) 

24.485 

(37.712) 

7.003 

(7.658) 

40 
(44) 

20 
(22) 

10 
(11) 

1,410.86 

($274.03) 

9,018. QI 

($1740.65) 

1. 146  06 

($221.19) 

Stump  extraction 

Planteurs 

688 
(1. 700) 

Forestation  of 
aleppo  pine 

3.340 
(663) 

3.122 
(3.414) 

1.038 
(1,135) 

25 
(27) 

15 
(16) 

10 
(II) 

(SI? 

3,320.00 

($640.76) 

970.00 

($187.21) 

($296^06) 

468.00 

($90.38) 

Stump  extraction 

M'Silah 

958 
(2.367) 

Cork  oak 

2,697 
(2.949) 

^752 

(4.103) 

24.410 

(26,694) 

500 

(546) 

20 
(22) 

10 
(II) 

5.921  00 

($1142.75) 

7,50.00 

($144.75) 

3.612.00 

($697.12) 

50.00 

($9  65) 

Stump  extraction 

Carried  forward 

102,547 
(253.393) 



193.775 
(211,912) 

69.873  66 
($13,485.62) 

(Acres.) 


(Yards.) 


FIRE   PROTECTION   AND    CONTROL 


97 


TABLE   7    {Continued.)  —  TABULATION    OF   FIRE    LINES    IN    THE 
CONSERVATION  OF  ORAN.  ON  STATE  FORESTS,  JAN.  i,  1913 


Area, 
hectares 
(acres). 

Chief 
species. 

Fire  lines. 

Name  oi  forest. 

Length, 
metres 

Width, 
metres 

Cost  of  con- 
struction, 

francs 
(dollars). 

Remarks. 

(yards). 

(yards). 

Brought  forward. 

102.547 
(253.393) 

193.775 
(211.912) 

69,873  66 
($13,485  62) 

Djabel  Khaar .. . . 

1,369 

Forestation  of 

4.240 

25 

530.00 

Simple  clearing 

(3.284) 

aleppo  pme 

(4.636) 

(27) 

($102.29) 

2.010 

25 

502.00 

Extraction  of  stumps 

(2.198) 

(27) 

($96.89) 

3.100 

20 

620.00 

Extraction  of  stumps 

(3.390) 

(22) 

($110  66 

2.260 

15 

169.00 

Simple  clearing 

(2.471) 

(16) 

($32.62) 

^.170 

10 

630.00 

Stump  extraction 

(3,466) 

(II) 

($121.59) 

Iviouiey  Ismail... 

6.405 

Thuya. 

1.747 

20 

263.00 

Simple  clearing 

(14.120) 

miscellane- 

(I.910) 

(22) 

($50.76) 

ous,  lentisks 

10.884 
(11,902) 

10 

(II) 

663.00 
($127  96) 

Simple  clearing 

9.751 

IS 

869.00 

Simple  clearing 

(10.663) 

(16) 

($167  72) 

Nesmoth 

6,405 

Cork  oak. 

3.10C 

IS 

527.9s 

Stump  extraction 

(14.120) 

holm  oak 

(3.390) 

(16) 

($101  89) 

Tenileld 

7.399 

Aleppo  pine 

6.465 

10 

539-07 

Simple  clearing 

(16,312) 

(7.070) 

(II) 

($104.04) 

DoniThabet.     . 

4,028 

Aleppo  pine 

6.720 

2S 

3.306  60 

Extract,  of  stumps  on 

(8,880) 

(7.349) 

(27) 

($638.17) 

2835  m.  (3100  yds.). 
Simple  clearing  on 
3885  m.  (4248  yds.). 

Zid  el  Moumus.   . 

4,888 

Aleppo  pine 

9.039 

25 

4.965.48 

Stump  extraction 

(10,776) 

(9.885) 

(27   34) 

($958.33) 

4,080 

IS 

1.013.52 

Stump  extraction 

(4,461) 

(16) 

($195.61) 

Sefionn 

5.894 

Aleppo  pine 

5,615 

30 

3,900  00 

Stump  extraction 

(12,994) 

(6,140) 

(33) 

($752.70) 

9.855 

15 

3.451.30 

Stump  extraction 

(10,777) 

(16) 

($666.10) 

Touzizme 

11,948 

Aleppo  pine 

2.060 

30 

800.00 

Simple  clearing 

(26,340) 

(2.252) 

(33) 

($154.40) 

11.375 

25 

5.754.80 

Extract,  of  stumps  on 

(12,439) 

(27) 

($1,110.67) 

6940  m.  (7589  yds.). 
Simple  clearing  on 
4435  m.  (4850  yds.) 

Zegla 

56.678 

Aleppo  pine 

34,310 

30 

19.082.47 
($3682  92) 

Stump  extraction 

(I24.9S3) 

(37.521) 

(33) 

2.750 

30 

1,661  53 

Stump  extraction 

(3.007) 

(33) 

($320.67) 

1.850 

10 

(2.023) 

(II) 

4,750 

1.664. 13 

Stump  extraction 

(5,194) 

(II) 

($321.17) 

Takrouma 

2,219 

Aleppo  pine 

11.263 

30 

8.336.73 

Stump  extraction 

(4,892) 

(12.317) 

in) 

($1608  99) 

Beni  Mathar 

9,600 

Aleppo  pine 

27.947 

30 

14.664.27 

Stump  extraction 

(21,164) 

(30.563) 

(33) 

($2,830  20) 

Hafir  

,  10,043 
(22.141) 

Cork  oak  on 

12.458 

50 

22,338  10 

Stump  extraction 

4000  h..  holm 

(13,624) 

(5S) 

($4,311   25) 

oak  and  thuya 

on  rest 

Zariflet 

989 

Cork  oak 

1.590 

10 

450.90 

Stump  extraction 

(2,180) 

(1.738) 

(II) 

($87  02) 

Totals 

230.523 
(508,215) 

386.164 

166.576.51 

Stump  extraction  on 

(422,352) 

($32,149  27) 

a    total    length    of 

Averages 

C.44  f. 

341.697  metres; 
(373.683  yds.);  brush 

perm. 

($0,078 

merely  cuton  44.467 

per  yd.) 

metres(48,629yds.) 

98 


ALGERIA 


The  foregoing  table  has  given  in  considerable  detail  a  tabu- 
lation of  the  fire  lines  of  different  widths  in  the  Conservation 
of  Oran.  Through  the  courtesy  of  the  conservator  at  Con- 
stantine,  the  original  record  sheets  for  three  inspections  (Bougie, 
Bone,  La  Calle)  were  secured  in  191 2.  A  tabulation  of  these 
sheets  is  given  in  Table  8,  which  follows: 


TABLE   8.  —  SUMMARY  OF   FIRE   LINES   IN   ALGERIA, 
CLASSIFIED   BY   INSPECTIONS  AND   WIDTH 


Length  of  fire  lines. 

Bougie. 

B6ne. 

La  Calle. 

Metres. 

Yards. 

Metres. 

Yards. 

Metres. 

Yards. 

Metres. 

Yards. 

2.5 

3 

5 

10 

12 

15 

20 

25 

30 

40 

50 

60 
100 
200 
250 
300 

3 

3 

5 
II 
14 
16 
22 
27 

33 

44 

55 

66    * 
109 
219 
273 
328 

26,684 

72,280 

2,390 
35.275 

64,757 
40,775 
17.947 

"'Soo' 

29,182 
79.046 

2,614 
38,577 

70,819 
44.592 
19,627 

■■■875' 

10,098 

47,164 
37.562 

2,825 

14,965 
118,069 

'  60,462 


11-043 

51.579 

41.078 

3,089 

"  i6',366 
129,122 

'66',  1 22 

63.093 

171,642 

7,000 

9.050 

33.667 

420,340 

74.270 

4.950 

3.250 

2,610 

10,565 

7,000 

10,780 

'  '68',999 
187,710 

7.655 
9.897 

36,819 
459.688 

81,222 
5.413 
3.554 
2.854 

11.554 

7.655 

11,789 

A  careful  study  of  the  foregoing  table  shows  clearly  that 
there  is  no  similarity  in  the  pohcy  of  the  width  of  fire  lines  in 
the  three  inspections  (supervisorships) .  In  Bougie  the  popular 
width  seems  to  be  10,  30,  40,  and  20  metres  (11,  33,  44,  and  22 
yards),  while  in  Bone  and  in  La  Calle  the  25-metre  (27-yard) 
fire  lines  predominate,  with  5  and  10  metre  (5.5  and  11  yard) 
lines  of  secondary  importance,  but  in  La  Calle  there  are  more 
than  75,000  metres  (82,020  yards)  of  30-metre  (33-yard)  lines, 
while  in  Bone  there  are  none.  Evidently,  the  width  has  de- 
pended more  or  less  on  the  ideas  of  the  inspector  in  charge 
and  upon  the  year  in  which  the  lines  were  constructed.  The 
tendency  seems  to  be  to  construct  narrower  lines  and  to  have 


FIRE    PROTECTION   AND    CONTROL  99 

them  more  thoroughly  cleared  than  in  the  past.  In  the  in- 
spection of  Bougie,  the  lines  on  nine  forests  (aggregating  35,451 
hectares)  (87,599  acres)  had  6,095,262  square  metres  (7,289,933 
square  yards)  of  fire  lines  or  an  average  of  172  square  metres 
(206  square  yards)  per  hectare  (2.5  acres).  This  means  that 
for  each  hectare  of  forest  there  was,  theoretically,  an  equiva- 
lent of  36  running  metres  (39  running  yards)  of  fire  fine  10 
metres  (11  yards)  in  width.  An  examination  of  the  original 
sheets  shows  a  still  further  peculiarity.  As  explained,  the  lines 
are  either  brushed  or  cleared  of  brush  supplemented  by  stump 
extraction.  In  Bougie,  on  the  nine  forests  referred  to,  63,280 
metres  (69,204  yards)  of  lo-metre  (ii-yard)  lines  were  cleared 
of  stumps,  and,  in  addition,  the  entire  length  of  20-metre  (22- 
yard)  Hnes  enumerated  in  Table  8.  No  stumps  had  been 
extracted  prior  to  1904  and  the  Hnes,  where  the  stumps  were 
extracted  since  then,  were  solely  trail  fire  lines  (Chemins-tran- 
chees).  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  Bone  inspection,  the  lines 
included  boundary  fire  hnes,  trail  fire  hnes,  etc.,  and  the 
stumps  had  been  extracted  on  all  classes.  In  La  Calle,  the 
stumps  had  been  extracted  on  about  half  the  lines,  the  narrower 
ones  comprising  chiefly  those  designed  for  trails.  .  This  diver- 
sity of  poUcy  denotes  clearly  that  the  French  Service  of  Waters 
and  Forests  in  Algeria  has  had  to  experiment  with  the  width 
of  fire  Hnes.  This  alone  explains  the  dissimilarity  in  the  dif- 
ferent inspections.  The  form  which  follows  illustrates  the 
records  which  are  kept  for  all  fire  lines. 


ALGERIA 


1 

1 

;;■:;;    n  i    ;;;;;;;    ; 

c 
a 
S 
a 

B 
o 

g 

n 

CT. 

"    i    M    ;    ;    ;    ;    i    ;    :    i    i    i    !    i 

6 

1  M    M    M    ^    M    ;    ^    ;    ^    ^    ^    M 

i 

"    M    M    M    M    M    i    :    M    ; 

i 

1 

,§' 

i 

2 

1 

E 

3 

CO 

1 

1 

J3 

1 

F 

IP 

1  M  M  M  M  M  ;  M  M 

Q 

's;  M  N  M  M  M  M  M 

§:s;    ;    i    :    ;    ;    i    M    M    i    ;    ;    ; 

y3^  .:;::: 

1^1 

^      ::::;:::::::::      : 

III  M  M  M  M  M  M  M 
P|  M  M  M  M  M  M  M 

dis      ;      ;      i      i      i      i      ;      :      :      ;      :      :      i      i 
z;            :;:::;:::::::: 

ADMINISTRATIVE   ORGANIZATION  lOI 

Back-firing.  —  As  a  result  of  experience  there  is,  on  the  part 
of  Algerian  foresters,  a  decided  prejudice  against  back-firing,  a 
method  of  fire  fighting  which  was,  in  the  past,  badly  abused. 
The  commission  reported:  ^ 

"We  believe  it  worth  while  to  note  the  great  danger  which 
arises  when  back  fires  are  lighted  to  fight  conflagrations. 
Back  fires  require  a  number  of  favorable  circumstances  which 
are  rarely  present  in  actual  practice;  they  presuppose  also 
long  experience  on  the  part  of  those  using  them,  a  quality 
which  is  rarely  acquired.  It  is  going  too  far  when  each 
native,  each  neighbor,  each  mayor  or  administrator,  or  each 
forest  employee  should  assume  the  right  of  starting  a  new 
fire  under  the  pretext  of  backfiring  and  of  saving  his  hut, 
his  property,  his  commune,  or  his  beat.  The  (forest)  ad- 
ministration should  give  the  strictest  orders  that  the  pro- 
visions of  the  law  on  this  subject  must  be  rigorously  observed 
by  all.  .   .  ." 

Fire  Lines  —  Conclusions.  —  Are  fire  lines  as  now  used  in 
Algeria  really  worth  the  cost?  After  talking  with  local  officers 
my  conclusion  is  that  fire  lines  are  necessary,  but  that  well- 
cleared  narrow  lines  are  more  practical  than  wide  lines  neces- 
sarily expensive  to  maintain.  A  narrow  line  is  sufficient  to 
stop  the  ordinary  fire  when  the  wind  is  not  violent;  with  a 
serious  wind  even  a  wide  line  will  not  avail.  Lines  should,  so 
far  as  possible,  be  combined  with  the  roads  and  trails  used  in 
the  business  of  export.  Large  areas  of  even-aged  inflammable 
stands  should  be  avoided.  Often  agriculture  can  be  encouraged 
so  that  farm  lands  will  separate  stands.  One  of  the  main  rea- 
sons why  lines  have  been  cleared  arises  from  the  desire  to 
make  the  pubhc  feel  that  energetic  steps  are  being  taken  to 
combat  fires  which  have  become  a  national  calamity. 

ADMINISTRATIVE   ORGANIZATION 

Forest  Organization.  —  The  Governor  General  is  at  the  present 
time  virtually  at  the  head  of  and  in  complete  control  of  the 
forest  organization  of  Algeria.     It  is  true  that  the  officers  of 

"  Commission  d'Etudes  Forestieres,  p.  138. 


I02  ALGERIA 

the  Service  are  loaned  to  him,  theoretically,  by  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture  at  Paris,  but  any  action  taken  in  regard  to  them, 
or  to  their  standing,  such  as  promotion,  demotion,  etc.,  is  taken 
at  the  request  and  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  governor. 
This  arrangement  gives  far  better  results  and  a  more  efficient 
working  corps  than  any  other  of  the  various  schemes  tried  out 
since  the  inception  of  the  Service. 

And  these  changes  have  been  sufficiently  numerous.  To 
begin  with,  the  Service  was  under  military  control  for  a  time, 
then,  later  on,  it  was  transferred  to  the  Department  of  the 
Minister  of  Agriculture  at  Paris.  On  Sept.  27,  1873,  it  was 
attached'*^  to  the  Governor  General's  office,  but  on  Aug.  26, 
1881,  it  was  again  placed  under  the  home  Minister  of  Agri- 
culture. On  Sept.  24,  1886,  the  power  of  the  Governor  General 
in  forestry  matters  was  considerably  increased,  and  on  Dec.  31, 
1896,  the  Forest  Service  was  put  in  his  charge,  with  employees 
directly  under  him  and  officers  loaned  by  the  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture, as  stated.  This  is  the  plan  that  maintains  to  the 
present  time  and  which  has  given  more  general  satisfaction 
than  any  of  the  other  arrangements  tried. 

The  Directions.  —  Under  the  general  government  the  admin- 
istration is  divided  into  seven  "directions"  (departments):  In- 
terior, Finances,  Agriculture,  Eaux  et  Forets,  Public  Works, 
Railroads,  and  Native  Affairs.  The  Forest  Service  is  in  charge 
of  a  director  (who  also  acts  as  conservator  of  the  Algiers  conser- 
vation), assisted  by  an  inspector  and  assistant  inspector;  the 
necessary  clerks  for  all  officers  are  recruited  from  employees 
who  are  not  well  suited  for  field  service.  There  are  three  con- 
servations or  districts,  with  the  following  force: 

^^  Pp.  165-166,  Recueil  de  la  Legislation  Forestiere  Algerienne,  V.  Boutilly. 


ADMINISTRATIVE   ORGANIZATION 

TABLE  9 


103 


Name  and  location 
of  conservation. 

Supervisory  force. 

Divisions 
(inspec- 
tions). 

Districts 
(chefTerie). 

Ranger 
districts. 

Guard's 
beat. 

Algiers 

Oran 

Constantine. 

I  conservator  (also 
director) 

I  inspector  (on  office 
duty) 

I  inspector  (control- 
ler) 

I  conservator 

I  inspector  (on  office 

duty) 
I  inspector  (control- 

ler) 

I  conservator 

I  inspector  (on  office 
duty) 

I  inspector  (control- 
ler) 

0 

0 
2 

12 

8 
8 

47 

33 
68 

242 
103 
323 

The  comparative  ^^  size  in  hectares  and  acres  (in  parentheses) 
of  administrative  units  in  France  and  Algeria  are  as  follows: 


TABLE   10 


Algeria. 

France. 

Hectares 

(Acres). 

600,000 

(1,482,600) 

106,000 

(256,926) 

39,000 

(96.369) 

3,000 

(7.413) 

Hectares 
(Acres). 
100,000  or  ^ 
(242,100) 
33,000  or  i 

(81,543) 

7,400  or  ^ 
(18,285) 

515  or  I 
(1.277) 

Guard 

In  addition  to  the  force  listed  there  are  204  native  guards 
who  are  used  as  field  interpreters  and  messengers.  French 
officers  are  usually  accompanied  on  their  field  trips  by  these 
native  guards,  partly  for  convenience,  and  partly  as  a  precaution 
against  assassination.^^ 

'^  Commission  d' Etudes  Forestieres. 

^'  Each  year  quite  a  number  of  iorest  officers  are  shot  from  ambush  owing  to 
the  ill  feeling  engendered  through  the  pertormance  of  their  duties,  especially 
trespass  investigations. 


I04 


ALGERIA 


The  Chefferies.  —  On  January  i,  1906,  the  old  system  of 
''inspections"  and  "cantonments,"  like  that  used  in  France, 
was  replaced^  in  Algeria  by  small  forest  districts  (chefferies) 
directly  under  the  conservator.  These  chefferies  are  adminis- 
tered by  an  inspector,  assistant  inspector,  or  forest  assistant, 
according  to  the  importance  of  the  station.  In  important 
chefferies  the  chief  is  assisted  by  an  auxiliary,  who  is  usually 
an  assistant  inspector  or  forest  assistant  (garde  general). 
Young  officers  are  always  trained  as  auxiliaries,  but  in  case 
they  show  no  special  aptitude  as  administrators,  they  are 
kept  as  office  assistants  during  the  remainder  of  their  offi- 
cial career.  In  other  words,  the  office  of  "inspection"  between 
the  conservator  and  the  cantonment  was  done  away  with. 
Two  of  the  old-style  units  were  retained  in  especially  important 
groups  of  forests  in  the  cork-oak  region  of  the  Constantine 
conservation,  but  these  also,  in  time,  will  be  dispensed  with. 

Statistical.  —  It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  number  of 
employees  in  the  Service  in  1881  with  the  roll  in  more  recent 
years.  The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  officers,  French 
guards  ■  and  rangers,  and  native  guards,  by  indicated  intervals : 

TABLE  II 


Year. 

Officers. 

French  guards 
and  rangers. 

Native  guards. 

Total. 

1881 

64 

66 

486 

782 
811 

180 
182 
180 
200 

795 

"^ 
1026 

1077 

i88q 

;gi 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  supervisory  force  has  decreased,^* 
presumably  so  that  the  survivors  may  receive  larger  salaries; 
the  native  force  has  remained  about  stationary,  while  the  French 
subordinate  force  was  largely  increased. 

^  Decree  of  November  16,  1905. 

*^  According  to  the  La  Classification  des  Archives,  1906,  the  filing  is  divided 
into  10  general  sections  which  are  subdivided  into  parts;  the  parts  are  divided 
into  divisions.  The  section  classification  is:  i.  Legislation  and  organization; 
2.  Personnel;  3.  Forest  domain;  4.  Exploitation;  5.  Concessions;  6.  Equipment 
and  improvements;  7.  Accounts  and  statistics;  8.  Trespass;  9.  Fires;  10.  Mis- 
cellaneous. 


ADMINISTRATIVE   ORGANIZATION  105 

The  Controller.  —  At  the  time  when  the  chefferie  organiza- 
tion was  adopted,  a  new  position  —  that  of  inspector  (controller) 
—  was  created.  The  controllers  are  really  general  inspectors 
under  the  director  of  the  Forest  Service,  but  also  under  the 
orders  of  the  conservators.  They  make  general  inspections 
in  the  chefferies,  but  ordinarily  do  not  inspect  officers  of  equal 
rank.  They  report  directly  to  the  conservators,  occasionally 
act  in  the  place  of  conservators,  but  may  take  very  important 
problems  of  a  serious  nature  to  the  director.  Notwithstanding 
the  extra  allowance  for  travel  and  the  fact  that  they  are  not 
burdened  with  routine,  the  position  is  not  generally  popular, 
because  they  must  spend  a  large  part  of  their  time  away  from 
their  families.  But,  on  the  whole,  the  creation  of  this  rank  has 
strengthened  the  organization.  For  the  inspectors  are  wholly 
free  from  local  influence  and  have  no  administrative  preference 
in  the  problems  reported  upon. 

In  the  language  of  the  EnabKng  Act:  "^"^ 

"A  certain  number  of  inspectors  may  be  charged  with 
control  and  placed  for  this  purpose  either  under  the  governor, 
the  government,  or  the  office  of  the  conservation;  or  they 
will  have  as  a  task  the  inspection  of  chefferies,  or  the  study 
of  important  problems.  Only  under  exceptional  circumstances 
will  these  inspectors  make  inspections  in  any  chefferies  ad- 
ministered other  than  by  assistant  inspectors  of  forest  or 
forest  assistants." 

Reforestation  Service.  —  The  reforestation  and  management 
service  under  an  inspector  at  Algiers  covers  all  three  conser- 
vations and  in  theory  is  attached  to  the  director's  office.  For 
convenience,  however,  it  is  under  the  conservator  of  the  Algiers 
conservation  who,  it  will  be  remembered,  acts  as  director. 
When  the  chief  makes  a  report  on  a  matter  in  another  con- 
servation, it  is  sent  to  the  director  through  the  conservator 
in  charge. 

A  research  station  (see  page  87)  has  been  created  and  the 
inspector  in  charge  of  the  Algiers  chefferie  has  been  nominated 
as  chief  under  the  orders  of  the  local  conservator. 

I 

^"  Art.  3,  Decree  of  November  16,  1905. 


Io6  ALGERIA 

In  Time  of  War.  —  The  Forest  Service  personnel  is  expected 
to  cooperate  in  guarding  the  coast,  the  frontier,  and  the  means 
of  communication;  or  to  defend  settlers  or  military  posts;  or 
join  with  columns.  In  case  of  war  forest  officers  and  men  are 
at  the  command  of  the  general  commanding  the  nineteenth 
army  corps.  The  men  will  be  given  the  following  correspond- 
ing grades:  forest  assistant  (attached  to  office)  =  second  lieu- 
tenant; assistant  inspector  =  captain;  inspector  =  batallion 
chief;  conservator  =  lieutenant  colonel;  rangers  =  petty  officers; 
guards,  first  class  =  corporal  or  brigadier;  guards,  second  class 
(French)  =  soldier  of  first  class;  native  guards  =  soldier  of 
second  class.  These  officers  keep  their  Forest  Service  uni- 
form in  time  of  war,  and  during  peace  they  are  furnished  with 
a  complete  armament. 

Salaries.  —  The  gross  salaries  in  Algeria  are  much  better 
than  in  France.  They  have  been  increased  by  a  rather  com- 
plicated system  of  special  supplements^^  and  in  addition  the 
organization  ^^  has  been  so  arranged  that  officers  of  low  rank 
can  direct  forests  under  the  chefferie  organization.  The  sup- 
plements referred  to  are:  for  colonial  services  the  conservator 
receives  3600  francs  ($694.80)  additional  pay,  the  inspector  2400 
francs  ($463.20),  the  assistant  inspector  1800  francs  ($347.40), 
the  forest  assistant  1400  francs  ($270.20),  and  the  forest  assist- 
ant on  office  duty,  800  francs  ($154.40). 

Bonus  on  Algerian  Service.  —  All  officers  receive  a  bonus 
of  1000  francs  ($193.00)  for  service  in  Algeria;  this  carries 
with  it  the  obligation  to  remain  4  years,  and,  in  default  of  this 
service,  a  pro  rata  refund  must  be  made.  Inspectors  serving 
as  "controllers"  receive  3000  francs  ($579.00)  more  each  year 
to  assist  in  paying  for  an  office;  conservators  receive  3600  to 
4000  francs  ($694.80  to  $772.00),  and  other  officers  in  charge  of 
districts  1000  francs  ($193.00).  When  on  tour  conservators 
receive  25  francs  ($4.82)  per  day  (for  auto  and  travel  the  con- 
servator of  Constantine  receives  6000  francs  ($1,158.00)),  and 
those  in  charge  of  districts  15  francs  ($2.89)  ;  the  latter  receive 

^^  Decree  of  November  16,  1905,  and  circular  of  August  31,  1904. 
'2  See  page  104. 


ADMINISTRATIVE   ORGANIZATION  107 

an  additional  800  francs  ($154.40)  annually  for  the  maintenance 
of  a  horse  or  automobile,  or  if  their  maintenance  is  imprac- 
ticable, the  same  amount  is  paid  on  expense  accounts  for  any 
form  of  transportation.  Officers  assigned  to  bureaus  receive  a 
total  idemnity  of  1500  francs  ($289.50);  employees  500  francs 
($96.50).  Any  one  who  collects  money  as  treasurer  receives  one- 
fifth  of  I  per  cent  of  the  amount  collected. 

When  on  special  duty  off  their  districts  conservators  receive 
per  diem  20  francs  ($3.86),  inspectors  10  francs  ($1.93),  and 
rangers  8  francs  ($1.54);  but  when  on  bureau  detail  only 
4  francs  ($0.77).  For  railroad  fare  conservators  receive  0.125 
franc  ($0.02)  per  kilometre  (0.621  mile),  inspectors,  etc.,  0.09 
franc  ($0,017);  for  carriages  conservators  receive  0.60  franc 
($0,115)  per  kilometre  (0.621  mile),  and  others  0.25  or  0.50  and 
0.30  franc  ($0,048  or  $0,096  and  $0,058)  respectively  for  horse 
hire.  In  addition  all  officers  are  allowed  i  month  leave  on 
full  pay  per  year,  or  2  months  every  2  years,  but  receive  free 
mail-boat  transportation  to  France  for  themselves  and  famihes. 

The  poHcy  of  allowing  a  higher  rate  of  H\ang  expenses  for 
the  more  important  officials  is  always  followed;  this  seems 
logical;  the  conservator,  for  example,  may  reasonably  be  ex- 
pected to  spend  more  when  on  inspection  trips  than  would 
a  forest  assistant. 

Employees  Classified  by  Length  of  Service.  —  There  are  two 
classes  of  employees:  (i)  those  who  served  before  1901,  who 
receive  the  same  salary  as  given  in  France  plus  a  supplement 
of  300  francs  ($57.90)  for  rangers  and  200  ($38.60)  for  guards; 
and  (2)  those  who  entered  the  service  after  1901,  who  receive 
a  combined  salary  and  supplement  as  follows:  rangers  in  three 
classes  receive  1600,  1500,  and  1400  francs  ($308.80,  $289.50, 
and  $270.20)  and  two  classes  of  guards  1200  and  iioo  francs 
($231.60  and  $212.30).  A  large  number  of  rangers  and  guards 
are  lodged,  but  those  who  have  to  five  in  quarters  receive  an 
allowance  for  this  purpose  of  200  francs  ($38.60). 

Both  guards  and  rangers  receive  500  francs  ($96.50)  a  year 
for  horse  feed  and  4  hectares  (10  acres)  of  land  for  a  garden. 
First-class  native  guards  receive  600  francs  ($19.30)  allowance 


lo8  ALGERIA 

in  lieu  of  lodging  in  case  no  station  is  available;  second-class 
guards  receive  550  francs  ($106.15)  and  those  in  the  third  class 
500  francs  ($96.50).  Exceptionally  good  men  who  have  served 
at  least  10  years  may  receive  10  francs  ($1.93)  per  month  addi- 
tional. 

An  employee  is  given  300  francs  ($57.90)  for  horse  equip- 
ment and  uniform  when  entering  the  service.  Native  in- 
terpreters (chaouchs)  attached  to  the  three  conservators'  offices 
and  to  the  Algiers  inspection  (supervisors')  office  receive  600 
francs  ($115.80)  per  year  and  300  francs  ($57.90)  in  Heu  of 
residence. 

By  his  decree  of  July  11,  1904,  the  Governor  of  Algeria  es- 
tablished a  body  of  native  Forest  Service  horsemen  recruited 
from  men  22  to  30  years  old,  who  understood  French.  They 
are  paid  400  francs  ($77.20)  and  are  given  the  same  allowances 
which  the  native  guards  receive. 

Promotions  —  Discipline.  —  Promotion  '"^  made  July  i  and 
January  i  can  be  sanctioned  after  at  least  2  years'  service  in 
the  lower  grade;  no  one  can  be  made  an  assistant  inspector  or 
conservator  unless  he  has  served  at  least  5  years  in  the  lower 
grade.  Advancement  in  the  lower  grades  is  based  half  on 
seniority  and  half  on  choice,  but  an  inspector  is  judged  75  per 
cent  on  choice  and  only  25  per  cent  on  seniority.  Appoint- 
ments to  still  higher  grades  are  entirely  on  choice  without  any 
reference  whatever  to  seniority.  Such  promotions  are  due  to 
choice  in  the  fullest  sense  because  they  are  made  by  a  large 
committee  rather  than  by  a  few  high  officials.  This  committee 
includes  the  officials  above  the  rank  of  conservator  —  two  con- 
servators nominated  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  and  two  rep- 
resentatives for  each  of  the  grades  of  inspector  down  to  ranger. 
The  members  of  the  committee  receive,  10  days  in  advance,  per- 
sonal data  on  each  candidate. 

In  finally  deciding  upon  advancement  the  deliberations  are 
secret  and  are  by  secret  ballot  with  majority  rule.  The  discipHne 
is  on  a  similar  basis,  and  formal  action  by  a  committee  is  only 
taken  after  formal  dehberations. 

*^  Presidential  decree  of  August  30,  191 2. 


FOREST   LEGISLATION  109 

The  promotions  and  discipline  of  employees  is  based  on  the 
same  policy,  but  the  committee  for  promotion  is  headed  by 
the  conservator  instead  of  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 
Member^  of  the  subordinate  force  are  only  promoted  to  be 
ofhcers  after  formal  examination.  Men  who  on  the  contrary 
cannot  handle  a  forest  or  district  are  used  as  office  men  and 
trained  as  high-class  administrative  clerks. 

FOREST   LEGISLATION 

Legislation.  —  The  Forest  Code^'*  of  1827  was  applied  in 
Algeria  after  the  conquest,  but  was  supplemented  by  the  laws 
of  July  17,  1874,  and  Dec.  9,  1885,  to  cover  more  thoroughly 
the  local  fire  and  rights  problems.  Owing  to  continued  criti- 
cism of  the  forest  administration  under  these  laws  a  commission 
was  appointed  in  1892  to  study  the  needs  of  the  colony  and  to 
suggest  the  modifications  necessary  to  make  the  Code  of  1827 
more  closely  applicable  to  local  conditions.  The  commission 
found  this  impracticable,  and,  instead,  recommended  an  en- 
tirely new  law,  which  was  finally  promulgated  on  Feb.  21, 
1903. 

The  New  Code.  —  "  Whatever  may  be  its  faults,"  Guyot 
considers  it  "a  remarkable  monument,  since  private  and  public 
interests  had  to  be  reconciled."  It  comprises  the  following 
parts  in  the  order  enumerated:  I.  Forest  Regime;  II.  Waters 
and  Forests  Administration;  III.  State  Forests,  i,  boundaries; 
2,  management;  3,  auctions  of  bark- felling  areas  and  sales 
by  agreement;  4,  exploitation;  5,  check  of  cutting  area;  6, 
auctions  and  rentals  of  grazing,  mast,  miscellaneous  forest 
products,  and  agricultural  land;  7,  wood  rights  in  state  forests; 
8,  expropriation;  IV."  Communal  and  PubKc  Institution  Forests; 
V.  Joint  Tenancy  Forests;  VI.  Private  Forests,  Reforestation 
Areas,  and  Clearings;  VII.  PoUce  and  Conservation  of  Woods 
and  Forests,  i,  provisions  applicable  to  all  woods;  2,  provisions 
applicable  only  to  forests  placed  under  forest  administration; 
VIII.  Prosecutions  for  Misdemeanors  and  Offences,   i,  prose- 

"  Commentaire  de  la  Loi  Forestiere  Algerienne,  par  Ch.  Guyot,  pp.  5-1 1. 


no  ALGERIA 

cution  undertaken  in  the  name  of  the  Waters  and  Forests  Serv- 
ice; 2,  prosecutions  for  misdemeanors  and  offences  in  woods 
not  under  forest  administration;  IX.  Penalties  and  Sentences 
AppKcable  to  Woods  and  Forests  in  General;  X.  Execution 
of  Judgments,  i,  judgment  concerning  misdemeanors  and  offences 
in  woods  under  forest  administration;  2,  judgments  concerning 
misdemeanors  and  offences  committed  in  woods  which  are  not 
under  forest  administration;  XL    General  Provisions. 

This  example  of  a  forest  code,  where  local  conditions  are, 
in  many  respects,  similar  to  the  western  United  States,  con- 
tains so  much  of  interest  that  it  has  been  translated  and  is 
given  in  full  in  the  Appendix,  page  161. 

The  new  law  is  simpler,^^  easier  to  understand,  less  severe, 
and  much  more  flexible  than  the  old.  Important  innovations 
which  are  worth  mentioning  specificaily  are:  the  prosecution 
for  deforestation;  use  of  fire;  lookout  posts;  transport  of  cork, 
etc.;  and  the  closing  of  areas  to  pasturage  after  forest  fires  on 
the  ground  burned  over.  The  governor  felt  that  the  restriction 
of  abusive  cutting  on  mountain  slopes  was  so  important  that 
the  dangers  of  deforestation  ^^  should  be  fully  explained  as  often 
as  possible. 

^5  Governor's  circular  letter  of  March  13,  1903. 

*"  The  comparatively  small  amount  of  deforestation,  considering  the  past  2000 
years  of  abusive  use,  is  locally  explained  by  the  frequent  plagues  and  wars  which 
cut  down  settlement  and  changed  the  highly  populated  districts  into  mere  wastes 
and  thus  gave  the  forests  a  chance  to  recover. 


CHAPTER  IV 
CORSICA 

Introduction    (p.    iii),   Early   History,   Forest   Problems,   Situation,   Area   and 

Topography,  Climate,  The  Forests. 
Forest  Conditions  (p.   115),  Forest  Area,  The  Species.  Corsican  Pine,  Maritime 

Pine,  Beech,  Holm  Oak,  Cork  Oak,  Fir,  Chestnut,  Other  Species,  Undergrowth. 
Administrative  Organization  and  Finances  (p.  123),  Organization,  Present  Force, 

Pay,  Work  and  Duties,  Administrative  Notes,  Supervision,  Finances. 
Working    Plans    and    Cultural    Methods    (p.    128),   Working    Plans,    Object   of 

Management,  System  of  Cutting  —  Shelterwood,  Failures.  Selection  System 

Adopted,  Advantages,  Application,  Coppice,  Marking  Corsican  Pine. 
Forest   Regulation   and  Yield   (p.  137),   Rotation,   Periods,  Yield,   Overcutting, 

Production,  Yield  Calculations. 
Sales  Methods  and  Contracts  —  Turpentine  Leases  (p.  140),  Timber  and  Wood 

Sales,   Sales   Contract   Conditions,   Sales   for   Large  Amounts,    Example  of 

a  Long-term  Sale,  Special  Rules,  Ordinary  Sales  Data,  After  a  Sale,   19 12 

Stumpage  Prices,  Turpentine  Operations,  Minor  Industries. 
Other    Forest    Activities    (p.    153),    Reforestation,    Trespass,    Fire    Protection, 

Grazing,  Quarters,  Roads  and  Trails,  Uses. 

INTRODUCTION 

Early  History.  —  Between  160  and  260  B.C.,  the  Roman,  Lucius 
Cornelius  Scipio,^  first  invaded  what  is  now  known  as  the  Island 
of  Corsica.  From  his  advent  war  followed  war,  almost  without 
cessation,  until,  in  1759,  the  island  was  ceded  to  France  by  the 
Republic  of  Genoa.  The  treaty  of  Versailles,  which  conveyed 
title,  provided  that  Corsica's  forests  should  be  attached  to  the 
royal  domain,  to  the  communes,  and  to  certain  specified  public 
institutions. 

Later  on,  in  1796,  the  English  under  Hood  captured  Corsica, 
but  the  conquest  was  soon  abandoned,  and  the  rule  of  France 
has  been  to  all  intents  and  purposes  uninterrupted  since  the 
cessation  of  the  island  to  that  power.  Forest  problems  crop 
out  from  time  to  time  in  the  history  of  this  period.  As  early 
1  The  History  of  Corsica,  I.  H.  Caird,  p.  i. 


112  CORSICA 

as  1763,-  the  French  general,  Dumouriez,  advised  that  in  view 
of  its  value  the  timber  of  the  island  should  be  marked  for  fell- 
ing. When  the  Consulta  met  at  Corte  in  October,  1764,^  the 
people  were  forbidden  the  free  use  of  timber  without  a  permit, 
a  measure  passed,  however,  to  protect  the  forests  from  the 
French  rather  than  from  the  local  population.  From  1759, 
the  year  in  which  Corsica  was  annexed  to  France,  to  as  late  as 
1824,  the  forests  were  administered  in  a  more  or  less  haphazard 
fashion,  by  diverse  administrations,  the  Eaux  and  Forets, 
Nancy  and  Domaines.  Since  the  latter  date,  they  have  been 
placed  under  and  managed  by  a  consistently  technical  adminis- 
tration. 

Forest  Problems.  —  Seneca,  after  his  banishment  to  Corsica, 
was  perhaps  not  in  a  frame  of  mind  to  judge  his  new  friends 
fairly,  but  his  taunt:'*  "Their  first  law  is  to  revenge  them- 
selves, their  second  to  live  by  plunder,  their  third  to  lie,  and 
their  fourth  to  deny  the  gods,"  has  come  down  to  us  in  history 
as  the  dictum  of  a  great  and  famous  man.  Whether  it  could 
be  taken  as  corroborative  evidence  or  not,  the  fact  is  apparent 
to-day  that  local  forest  users  are  lawless  and  extremely  difficult 
to  control.  Fire,  excessive  grazing  in  its  most  objectionable 
form  —  by  goats  —  and  minor  ^  trespass  still  furnish  as  knotty 
problems  to  the  forest  administrators  of  the  island  as  they 
have  in  the  past. 

Fires,  especially,  have  been  so  disastrous  that  a  change 
from  the  shelterwood  to  the  selection  system  has  become  a 
necessity.  To-day,  in  federal  forests,  grazing  is  practically  un- 
restricted, although  absolutely  contrary  to  the  forest  code. 
And  when,  in  1834,  an  attempt  to  regulate  grazing  was  made, 
armed  opposition  arose  to  the  enforcement  of  the  law.  While 
the  island  is  well  settled  (by  the  census  of  191 1,''  there  are  33 

2  The  History  of  Corsica,  I.  H.  Caird,  p.  182. 

3  Id.,  p.  155. 
*  Id.,  p.  I. 

^  See  trespass,  p.  154. 

^  Notes  prepared  by  de  Lapasse,  conservator  of  the  30th  conservation  who 
kindly  reviewed  and  corrected  the  chapter  on  Corsica,  assisted  by  the  H.  M. 
Consul  at  Ajaccio,  The  Hon.  Henry  Dundas. 


INTRODUCTION  II3 

inhabitants  per  square  kilometre  (0.3861  square  mile)  as  com- 
pared with  73  for  France),  still  the  impossibility  of  controlling 
fires  and  grazing  has  practically  dictated  the  character  of  the 
silvicultural  measures  in  force. 

These  will  be  taken  up  in  detail,  but  before  considering  the 
present  administration  and  forest  management,  a  word  about 
Corsica's  climate  and  topography. 

Situation.  — The  island  is  situated^  between  43°  o'  42"  and 
41°  21'  4"  north  latitude  and  between  6°  11'  47"  and  7°  11'  6" 
east  longitude. 

Area  and  Topography.  —  It  is  183  kilometres  (113  miles)  long 
by  84  (52  miles)  wide  with  a  double  mountain  chain  running 
along  its  length.  Its  total  area  is  872,182  hectares  (2,155,161 
acres)  with  490  kilometres  (304  miles)  of  coast  line.  The  moun- 
tains are  abrupt  and  often  precipitous;  because  of  their  rapid 
descent,  a  drainage  by  torrents,  rather  than  by  rivers.  The 
east  coast  is  level  with  areas  of  alluvial  plains,  but  the  west 
coast  is  rocky  and  cut  by  bays.  Monte  Cinto,  in  the  north- 
west quarter  of  the  island,  rises  to  2709.5  metres  (8890  feet) 
elevation.  The  prevailing  rock  is  grey  granite  which  disinte- 
grates slowly.  There  is  considerable  limestone  at  the  lower 
elevations. 

Climate.  —  Paul  Joanne  gives  three  climatic  zones :^  (i) 
The  maritime  zone,  extending  to  580  metres  (1903  feet)  with  an 
estimated  rainfall  of  700  to  900  millimetres  (27  to  35  inches) 
at  Ajaccio;  rarely  below  0°  C.  (32°  F.)  and  never  over  33°  C. 
(91°  F.)  of  heat. 

(2)  A  hill  zone  extending  to  1750  metres  (5741  feet)  with 
4  metres  (13  feet)  of  snow  in  the  winter,  at  an  elevation  of 
1 162  metres  (3812  feet)  at  Vizzavona. 

(3)  An  Alpine  zone,  with  8  months  of  winter;  the  hot  and 
dry  fire  season  extends  from  May  to  September. 

The  Forests.  —  Most  of  the  easily  accessible  areas,  formerly 
forested,  are  now  covered  with  dense  brush  locally  known  as 
''maquis";  written  "macchie"  by  the  natives.     The  valuable 

'  Geographic  du  departement  de  la  Corse  par  Paul  Joanne,  sixieme  edition. 
*  Compare  with  forest  zones,  p.  115. 


114 


CORSICA 


FOREST   CONDITIONS  I15 

forests  are  Corsican  pine  {P.  laricio) ,  mixed  with  maritime  pine 

{P.  maritima)  at  its  lower  limits,  and  forced  back  by  beech  and 

fir  at  extreme  elevations. 

The  following  forest  zones  are  locally  recognized :  ^ 

(i)  o  to  500  metres  (o  to  1640  feet)  chiefly  agricultural  land 

and  maquis,  but  also  cork  oak  [Q.  suher)  (near  Porto- Vecchio) , 

holm  oak  {Q.  ilex),  and  vert  oak  {Q.  ilex). 

(2)  500  to  1000  metres  (1640  to  3281  feet)  maritime  pine 
and  chestnut. 

(3)  1000  to  1800  metres  (3281  to  5915  feet)  Corsican  pine, 
with  beech  in  the  high  central  valleys  and  fir  at  a  few  elevated 
points. 

FOREST   CONDITIONS 

Forest  Area.  —  In  1878  the  official  records  ^°  put  the  total 
forested  area  at  209,177  hectares  (516,876  acres),  but  in 
December,  191 2,  this  area  had  fallen  to  ^^  132,215  hectares  ^^ 
(326,703  acres)  under  management,  and  42,400  hectares  (104,770 
acres)  of  private  forest,  or  a  total  of  174,406.05  hectares 
(430,957  acres).  This  decrease  during  the  past  3  decades  is 
chiefly  in  private  forests,  and  has  been  occasioned  by  exces- 
sive cutting  coupled  with  grazing  and  fire.  Of  the  area  now 
classed  as  forested,  there  are  34,079  hectares  (84,209  acres)  of 
blanks,  mostly  rocky  summits  above  timber  line;  this  leaves 
actually  stocked  with  trees  some  140,536  hectares  (347,264 
acres),  or  16  per  cent  of  the  total  area,  as  against  24  per  cent 
for  1878.  The  location  of  the  federal  forests  is  indicated  upon 
the  accompan)ring  diagrammatic  map  (Fig.  17). 

The  Species.  —  The  chief  local  species, ^^  in  the  order  of  the 
area  which  they  cover,  are  as  follows:  Holm  oak,  Corsican  pine, 
maritime  pine,  beech,  and  cork  oak.     The  distribution  in  federal 

^  Unpublished  notes  by  cle  Lapasse  compare  with  Paul  Joanne's  climatic  zones. 
'"  Unpublished  official  report,  unsigned. 

"  PvCport  of  Prefect,  dated  December  31,  1911,  p.  94,  gives  132,006.05  hectares. 
'^  Unpublished  notes  by  de  Lapasse. 

*^  The  data  on  species  are  partly  from  unpublished  notes  by  de  Lapasse  sup- 
plemented by  field  notes  by  the  writer. 


ii6 


CORSICA 


Fig.  17.  — Forests  managed  by  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service  in  Corsica. 


FOREST   CONDITIONS 


117 


ii8 


CORSICA 


and  communal  forests,  including  both  those  under  manage- 
ment and  those  for  which  no  working  plans  have  been  made, 
is  as  follows: 


TABLE  12 


Class  of  Forests. 


Federal 

Communal 

Private  forests  and  com- 
munal forests  not  under 
forest  management 

Average 


Holm 
oak. 


Corsi- 
can 
pine. 


Mari- 
time 
pine. 


Cork 
oak. 


Relative  per  cent  of  area  occupied  by  each  species. 


3° 


33 


39 

28 

10 

3 

28 

12 

20 

ID 

9 

30 

6 

8 

14 

25 

23 

12 

3 

9 

100 
100 


100 
100 


Corsican  Pine,  —  By  far  the  most  important  timber  tree  is 
the  Corsican  pine,  which  has  usually  grown  in  pure,  even- 
aged  stands,  though  in  mixture  with  maritime  pine  at  its  lower 
range  and  with  beech  and  occasionally  fir  at  its  upper  hmit. 
Notably  in  the  forest  of  Vizzavona  the  beech  seems  to  be  driv- 
ing the  pine  out  of  the  higher  valleys. 

The  largest  forests  of  Corsican  pine  are  Aitone,  Valdoniello, 
Asco,  Tavignano,  Marmano,  Melaja,  Verde,  and  Vizzavona. 
The  pine  reaches  45  to  50  metres  (148  to  164  feet)  in  height, 
and  is  sometimes  2  metres  (6.5  feet)  in  diameter;  but  it  is 
very  slow  in  growth,  especially  after  200  years,  and  takes  350 
years  or  more  to  grow  to  a  breasthigh  diameter  of  0.90  to 
I  metre  (2.9  to  3.3  feet).  Trees  have  been  found  900  to  1000 
years  of  age  and  still  sound.  In  old  age  the  crown  is  mush- 
room shaped. 

A  number  of  stump  counts  were  made  to  gather  rough  data 
on  the  rotation.  The  figures  which  follow  were  collected  by 
the  writer  in  recent  cutting  areas: 


FOREST   CONDITIONS 


119 


TABLE   13 


Diameter,  breasthigh. 

Total  age, 

years.     (10 

years  allowed 

for  stump 

height.) 

Metres. 

Inches. 

0.28 
0.46 
0.48 

0.66 

0.74 
0.74 
0.97 
0.99 
1.02 

II 
18 
19 

26 

29 
29 
38 
39 
40 

90 
92 
115 

160       J 

270        I 
260       i 

550 
480 
Soo 

Still  growing  rapidly. 

Still  growing  rapidly. 

Still  growing  rapidly. 

Still  growing  well;  suppressed  for 
first  30  years  but  showed  re- 
markable recovery. 

At  145  years  growth  slowed  up. 

At  1 60  to  200  years  growth  slowed  up. 
At  175  years  growth  slowed  up. 
At  200  years  growth  slowed  up. 

These  figures  are  too  scanty  to  allow  of  deducing  reliable 
conclusions,  but  it  is  significant  that  the  trees  are  growing 
rapidly  up  to  i6o  to  200  years,  while  after  that  age  the  rings 
often  cannot  be  counted  without  a  magnifying  glass. 

The  wood  of  the  Corsican  pine  is  used  for  lumber  and  di- 
mension stuff.  During  the  years  1856  and  1872  trees  were 
tapped  for  resin  because  of  the  high  prices  prevailing  during 
the  American  Civil  War.  They  produced  a  good  quality  of 
resin  but  gave  a  scanty  flow,  and  the  results  to-day  show  that 
this  tapping  killed  a  good  many  of  the  mature  trees  and  slowed 
up  their  growth.^^  The  average  mature  and  over-mature  stand 
of  Corsican  pine  closely  resembles  the  western  yellow  pine 
stands  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  except  that  the  tree  does 
not  grow  in  such  typical  groups. 

Maritime  Pine.  —  The  maritime  pine  is  found  pure  or  in 
mixture  with  holm  oak  and  Corsican  pine.  It  is  of  rapid  growth 
and  attains  a  large  size.  In  the  forest  of  Marmano  a  0.99-metre 
(39-inch)  tree  was  found  20  metres  (666  feet)  high  and  con- 
taining 3^  good  4.9-metre  (16-foot)  saw  logs.  In  the  same 
forest  trees  0.7106  and  0.7369  metre  (28  and  29  inches)  in  diam- 
eter and  115  and  125  years  old,  respectively,  were  both  rotten 
at  the  heart. 

14  The  results  of  this  tapping  raises  doubts  as  to  the  advisability  of  tapping 
western  yellow  pine  on  dry  soil  in  the  States  of  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Utah,  Colo- 
rado, etc.,  for  silvical  reasons  and  whether  it  is  wise  to  start  a  new  industry  de- 
pendent on  high  prices  for  its  success. 


I20 


CORSICA 


FOREST   CONDITIONS  I2i 

The  tree  was  tapped  in  1862  to  1872,  and  operations  were 
recommenced  on  a  large  scale  in  the  forest  of  Zonza  in  1908. 
A  local  distillery  has  since  been  erected  at  Zonza. 

The  most  important  forests  of  maritime  pine  are  Zonza,  Ca- 
lenza,  Pastricciola,  Vero,  Pineta,  Solenzara,  Marghese  Vallemala. 

Beech.  —  Beech  is  found  in  the  high  valleys  above  1300 
metres  (4290  feet),  pure  or  in  mixture  with  Corsican  pine  and 
fir.  The  largest  areas  are  in  the  forests  of  Coscione,  Biangone, 
Cerotte,  St.  Antoine,  San  Pietro-di-Verde,  all  in  the  valley  of 
Taravo;  in  the  valley  of  Ese,  in  the  forests  of  Querceta  and 
Punteniello;  in  the  valley  of  Fiurmorbo,  in  the  forest  of  Mar- 
mano;  and  in  the  valley  of  Vecchio,  forest  of  Vizzavona.  The 
beech  is  encroaching  on  the  Corsican  pine,  which  is  unfortunate, 
because  it  is  a  slow  grower  and  is  often  rotten  at  the  heart.  It 
is  cut  to  some  extent  for  variety  stock,  but  chiefly  for  cordwood. 

Holm  Oak.  —  The  holm  oak,  while  it  covers  a  large  area, 
has  not  the  financial  importance  of  the  Corsican  pine,  because 
it  is  used  only  for  charcoal,  fire  wood,  and  for  tannin.  It  is 
found  chiefly  in  the  plains  and  lower  hills,  often  in  mixture 
with  maritime  pine. 

Cork  Oak.  —  The  cork  oak  is  pure,  or  with  holm  oak,  but 
the  most  important  forests  are  in  private  ownership.  The 
forest  of  Cagna  is  the  chief  of  these.  The  growth  of  this  tree 
is  rapid  and  it  is  much  sought  after.  In  1908  the  total  pro- 
duction of  cork  amounted  to  6085  quintaux  (1,341,511  pounds). 

The  cork  ^^  is  sold  on  the  tree,  for  periods  of  18  years,  instead 
of  being  collected  by  federal  day  labor,  as  in  Algeria.  The  cork 
may  be  removed  from  the  time  the  sap  rises  until  August;  but 
only  cork  having  a  thickness  of  23  millimetres  (0.91  inch)  on 
nine-tenths  of  its  area  may  be  peeled.  Trees  above  0.50  metre 
(20  inches)  in  circumference  may  be  peeled,  the  measurement 
being  outside  the  bark  at  i  metre  (39  inches)  above  the  ground. 
The  tree  must  be  peeled,  cleanly,  from  the  ground  up  to  a  height 
equal  to  twice  the  tree's  circumference,  outside  bark,  and  only 
branches  measuring  at  least  60  centimetres  (24  inches)  in  cir- 

15  Cahier  des  charges,  Adjudication  de  la  Recolte  du  Liege,  pp.  13-5,  approved 
March  4,  1909. 


122  CORSICA 

cumference,  i  metre  (39  inches)  from  the  trunk,  can  be  peeled, 
and  then  only  3  years  after  the  trunk  bark  has  been  collected. 
Trees  are  considered  mature  and  ready  for  felling  when  after 
18  years  the  cork  measures  at  least  23  millimetres  (0.91  inch), 
or  when  the  trees  are  burned  by  fire.  The  contractor  must, 
moreover,  assume  all  responsibility  in  case  trees  are  burned, 
wind- thrown  or  killed  by  act  of  Providence. 

Fir.  —  The  fir  (abies)  is  found  in  a  few  scattering  groups  on 
the  higher  mountains.  Perhaps  the  largest  commercial  body 
of  fir  is  on  the  north  exposures  in  the  forest  of  Aitone.  It  is 
also  found  in  considerable  quantities  in  the  forests  of  Libio, 
Punteniello,  and  Pietrapiana;  there  are  a  few  trees  in  the  forest 
of  Valdoniello. 

Chestnut.  —  The  chestnut  is  not  important  in  federal  or 
communal  forests.  It  is  grown  for  its  fruit,  which  is  baked 
and  eaten  by  the  peasants  and  also  fed  to  the  stock.  Recently 
a  very  serious  problem  ^^  has  arisen  in  connection  with  the 
production  of  this  wood.  In  1902  some  80,000  steres  (2,825,120 
stacked  cubic  feet)  or  240  hectares  (593  acres)  of  chestnut  forest 
was  cut  for  tannin;  in  191 1  to  191 2  this  had  risen  to  200,000 
steres  (7,628,000  stacked  cubic  feet),  corresponding  to  600  hec- 
tares (1482  acres) ;  and  since  in  1910  ^^  the  total  area  under  chest- 
nut was  estimated  at  only  48,787  hectares  (120,552  acres),  in- 
creased felHngs  might  readily  menace  the  peasants'  food  supply. 
From  the  fact  that  the  tannin  value  of  the  average  tree  is  only 
worth  5  or  6  chestnut  fruit  crops,  de  Lapasse  calls  the  deforesta- 
tion "Killing  the  goose  that  lays  the  golden  eggs."  As  a  remedy 
he  strongly  advocates  the  policy  of  forbidding  deforestation 
by  law  and  a  heavy  tax  on  tannin.  The  past  results  from  pay- 
ing cash  for  plantations  have  been  imaginary,  so  reliance  on 
this  measure  (tried  with  equally  deplorable  results  in  the  western 
United  States  with  the  timber-culture  law)  is  discouraged. 
The  chestnut  blight  disease  which  has  caused  so  much  damage, 
and  which  has  encouraged  the  cutting  for  tannin,  is  to  be  com- 
bated by  trying  to  introduce  an  immune  species. 

1"  Letter  from  Conservator  de  Lapasse  in  the  Rapport  du  Prefet,  1912. 
"  La  Corse  Agricole,  April  10,  1911. 


ADMINISTRATIVE   ORGANIZATION   AND   FINANCES 


123 


Other  Species.  —  Rowan  oak  is  also  found  in  Corsica,  as 
well  as  birch,  linden,  ash,  aspen,  common  alder,  green  alder, 
sycamore,  maple,  etc.,  all  of  secondary  importance. 

Undergrowth.  —  The  more  important  undergrowth  is:  straw- 
berry tree,  tree  heather,  mastic  tree,  buckthorn,  viburnum, 
bay,  juniper  bush,  box  tree,  broom  or  jennet,  cistus,  etc.  Of 
these  the  heather  is  the  most  considered,  from  the  forester's 
viewpoint,  because  of  the  fire  menace  it  creates  when  growing 
under  Corsican  pine  on  southern  exposures. 


ADMINISTRATIVE   ORGANIZATION   AND  FINANCES 

Organization.  —  The  entire  island  of  Corsica  comprises  the 
30th  conservation  with  an  official  forest  area  of  132,006  hectares 
(326,185  acres).  It  is  administered  by  a  conservator^^  stationed 
at  Ajaccio. 

There  are  now  five  inspections  with  the  following  areas:  ^^ 

TABLE  14 


Hectares  and  acres  of  forests. 

Federal. 

Communal. 

Hectares. 

Acres. 

Hectares. 

Acres. 

Hectares. 

Acres. 

Ajaccio 

Bastia 

6,186 
14,711 

7,343 
10,126 

8,465 

15-285 
36,350 
18,144 
25,021 
20,917 

17.331 
16,972 
15,121 
17,055 
18,696 

42,824 
41.937 
37,364 
42,143 
46,197 

23,517 
31,683 
22,464 
27,181 
27.161 

58,110 
78,288 
55.508 
67,165 
67,114 

Chiavari 

Corte 

Sartene 

Totals 

46,831 

IIS. 717 

85.175 

210,465 

132,006 

326,185 

Present  Force.  —  Of  these,  strictly  speaking,  Ajaccio  and 
Chiavari  are  "chefferies,"  designed  for  an  isolated  area  of 
forests  where  the  inspector  himself  has  a  mere  ranger  district 
to  administer.  With  the  other  regular  inspections  the  inspector 
has  no  district,  but  merely  supervises  all  districts.  The  present 
aggregate  force-"  includes:    i  conservator,  i  assistant  inspector 

'*  The  conservator  in  191 2  was  M.  deLapasse,  an  efficient  officer  and  a  charm- 
ing man,  nominated  as  conservator  at  Bordeaux  in  19 13. 

18  Unpublished  official  records  furnished  me  by  de  Lapasse, 

-"  The  essential  statistics  of  the  forests  under  the  forest  regime  are  given  in 
the  Appendix,  p.  209. 


124 


CORSICA 


acting  as  chief  clerk,  and  4  clerks;  5  inspectors  and  5  clerks, 
4  assistant  inspectors  who  are  ranger  district  (cantonment) 
chiefs,  4  forest  assistants,  24  rangers  (i  communal)  and  114 
assistant  rangers  ("guards")  of  whom  56  are  communal.  The 
area  per  unit  in  1887  and  191 1  in  hectares  and  acres  (in  paren- 
theses) is  shown  below: 


TABLE    15 

Unit. 

No. 

1887.2' 

No. 

1911. 

4 
II 

23 
128 

30,441.78 

(75.222) 

11,069.74 

(27.353) 

5,294.22 

(13,082) 

951 .80 

(2,352) 

5 

10 

24 

114 

J3  inspections!    26,400 

(2  chefferies    ((51,891) 

13,200 

(32,617) 

5.500 

Cantonment 

(13.590) 
1,158 

(2,961) 

21  Unpublished  ofi&cial  report  dated  1887,  complete  statistics  on  the  forests  of 
Corsica  are  given  after  page  209. 

Pay.  —  The  pay  of  the  superior  force  is  on  the  same  basis 
as  in  France,  with  the  following  supplements:  Conservator  1200 
francs  ($231.60);  inspector  1000  francs  ($193);  assistant  in- 
spector 800  francs  ($154.40) ;  forest  assistant  600  francs  ($115.80). 
The  rangers  receive  no  supplements;  the  guards  are  paid  from 
60  to  70  francs  ($11.58  to  $13.51)  a  month  with  quarters,  fuel, 
garden,  and  extra  pay  for  calipering  and  for  marking  when 
working  off  their  beat.  While  the  guards'  salaries  are  perhaps 
one-seventh  what  is  paid  an  assistant  ranger  in  the  United 
States,  the  requirements  as  to  quality  and  quantity  of  work  do 
not  approach  our  standards. 

Work  and  Duties,  —  The  year's  work  perhaps  could  be 
compressed  into  what  we  should  consider  2  months'  service. 
An  American  federal  forester  would  say  that  there  were  at 
least  twice  too  many  guards.  As  one  guard  remarked,  "We 
would  rather  have  better  pay  and  more  work;  even  doing 
nothing  is  fatiguing  if  one  must  remain  on  official  duty."  Dur- 
ing the  slack  season  the  guards  make  cleanings,  and  put  in 
their  time  on  station  maintenance  by  painting,  repairing,  and 


ADMINISTRATIVE   ORGANIZATION  AND    FINANCES         125 

puttering  at  odd  jobs.  During  the  fire  season  a  few  extra 
guards  are  hired  to  divide  their  work  between  trail  improve- 
ments and  duty  at  look-out  points. 

In  Corsica,  where  local  feuds  are  not  uncommon,  it  is  the 
practice  to  lodge  two  or  more  guards  and  rangers  together; 
this  is  for  mutual  protection  as  well  as  because  of  the  solitary 
life  on  the  isolated  ranger  stations.  Some  unfortunate  ad- 
ministrative errors  have  been  caused  by  the  assignment  of 
subordinates  to  forests  where  they  were  related  to  the  users 
and  the  practice  is  avoided  now  so  far  as  practicable. 

Administrative  Notes.  —  As  to  intensiveness  of  administra- 
tion, Corsica  stands  midway  between  Algeria-Tunisia  and 
France  proper.  It  is  rather  surprising  to  find,  however,  that 
(as  in  France)  the  conservator  (district  forester)  is  weighed 
down  with  office  duties  and  spends  but  10  per  cent  of  his  time 
in  the  field. " 

Supervision.  —  When  on  field  duty  the  conservator  is  allowed 
20  francs  ($3.86)  a  day  as  per  diem  to  cover  all  expenses,  in- 
cluding railroad  fare.  An  estimate  of  the  days  to  be  spent  in 
the  field  is  made  at  the  beginning  of  the  fiscal  year  and  money 
alloted  on  that  basis  is  only  allowed  at  the  rate  of  20  francs 
($3.86)  per  day  spent  in  the  field,  but  if  the  estimated  number 
is  surpassed,  no  additional  compensation  is  possible.  This 
unfortunate  limitation  in  per  diem  money  undoubtedly  curtails 
inspection.  The  system  would  work  admirably,  if  only  the 
number  of  days  per  diem  corresponded  automatically  to  the 
number  of  days  spent  on  inspection;  at  present  there  is  in- 
sufficient field  inspection  by  the  conservator.  The  results  of 
inspection  are  immediately  put  into  effect  and  at  the  end  of 
the  field  season  are  compiled  into  an  informal  annual  report 
which  is  forwarded  to  Paris.  A  comparison  of  the  reports 
for  1 9 10  and  191 1  (dated  Feb.  8,  191 2)  shows  that  in  practice 
no  exact  outline  is  followed.  A  digest  of  the  191 1  report^ 
follows : 

^  In  1888  the  conservator  spent  about  60  days  on  inspection  trips;  in  1911 
and  1912  but  37  and  43. 

23  Conservator  de  Lapasse's  report  for  191 1. 


126  CORSICA 

I.   Personnel  and  general  service :  brief  review  of  cases,  changes, 

resignations,  etc. 
Attitude:    general  remarks  on  quality  of  work,  whether 

men  enter  into  politics. 
Oihce  inspection:   condition  of  records. 
Payments :  whether  communal  salaries  have  been  promptly 

paid. 
Cooperation:     amount   of   aid   given    to   local   people   in 

distress. 
Lodging  at  ranger  houses:    re\iew  of  tourists  and  others 

lodged  and  fed. 
Conservator's  tours:    review  of  inspection  and  argument 

in  favor  of  more  field  work,  i.e.,  a  larger  expense  allotment. 
II.    Fellings:   yield  in  products. 

FelHngs:    careful  and  detailed  review  of  cuttings  visited. 
Working  plans:    progress  made,  inspection  of  plans  com- 
pleted, work  for  next  year. 
Tapping:   results  of  operations. 
Sales:   review  and  summary. 
III.   Betterments. 

A .   Improvements  paid  for  in  cash. 

Digest  of  expenditures  by  major  headings  such  as  work- 
ing plans;   roads  and  trails;  planting,  etc. 
Reforestation :   description  of  results  and  costs. 
Roads  and  trails. 
Water  supply. 
Forest  houses. 
Destroying  insects. 
Fire  protection 

B.   Improvements  efected  hy  forest  employees'  labor. 

Betterments  proposed  for  191 2. 
IV.  Trespass:   review  of  more  important  cases. 
V.   Hunting. 
VI.  Fish  culture. 


ADMINISTRATIVE   ORGANIZATION   AND    FINANCES 


127 


Finances.  —  For  the  fiscal  year  191 1  the  following  expendi- 
tures were  approved : 

TABLE   16 


Francs. 

Dollars. 

Personnel: 

Officers 

84.731 
92,905 

47.1.37 

16,353   08 
17,930.66 
8,097.44 

Federal  rangers  and  guards 

Communal  rangers  and  guards 

Miscellaneous:  ^^ 

Improvement  and  maintenance 

224.773 

31.777 
2,665 

17.923 
1,460 

42,381.18 

6,132.96 
514-34 

3.459    14 
281.78 

Working  plans  and  sales 

Federal  forest  impositions 

Miscellaneous  expense 

53.825 

10,388.22 

Grand  totals. . . 

278,598 

52,769  40 

2*  In  iQio  the  allotment  was  52,555  francs  ($10,143.11),  and  in  1911  it  fell  to 
32,151  francs  ($6205.23);  1912,  24,330  francs  ($4695.69). 

The  receipts  for  the  same  year  were  640, 144  francs  ($1 23,647.79) , 
divided  as  follows: 

TABLE  17 


Francs. 

Dollars. 

Federal  forests: 

Timber  sales 

79.008 
12.306 

15.248.54 
2,^75.06 

Miscellaneous 

Communal  forests: 

Timber  sales 

91.314 

505.674 
43.156 

17,623.60 

97.595  08 
8,429.11 

548,830 

106,024.19 

Grand  totals 

640,144 

123,647.79 

The  expenditures  on  betterments^^  for  1910  and  191 1  show 
not  only  the  amounts  spent  but  also  give  an  exact  idea  of  what 
is  classed  as  improvements: 

2^  Annual  reports  for  1910  and  1911. 


128 


CORSICA 
TABLE   i8 


1910. 

ign. 

Francs. 

Dollars. 

Francs. 

Dollars. 

1,098 
490 
5.813 
2,164 
1.829 

417 

37.422 

3-322 

212.91 

94.57 

1,121 .91 

417-65 

353-00 

130.00 

240.00 

7.432.58 

2,812.72 

1.349-64 

132.00 

1,246.91 

14,956.00 

3.593-59 
258.00 

25.09 
46.32 

1434.49 

542.86 

260.49 

25-48 

240.65 

2,886.51 

693-57 

49-79 

Freeing  seedlings 

Maintenance  of  trails 

Maintenance  of  houses 

Water  development 

First  aid  (medical  relief)  .... 

Fences 

Planting  (Chiavari) 

80.48 

7.222.45 

641.15 

Exterminating  caterpillars.  . 

Totals -. 

52,555 

10,144.12 

32-151-44 

6,205.25 

WORKING   PLANS   AND   CULTURAL  METHODS 

Working  Plans.  —  The  first  working  plan  was  made  in  1840 
for  the  forest  of  Valdoniello;  it  provided  for  a  long-term  sale, 
but  there  were  no  offers. 

The  early  plans  were  in  reality  mere  stand  summaries,  in- 
cluding an  estimate  (often  inaccurate)  of  logs  in  cubic  metres 
and  firewood  in  steres.  A  feature  of  early  plans  was  the  final 
review  by  the  conservator;  one  plan,  it  is  true,  was  perfunc- 
torily approved,  but  others  were  reviewed  at  some  length. 
It  seems  an  excellent  plan  to  require  a  definite  review  of  the 
main  provisions  of  a  working  plan  by  the  conservator  rather 
than  a  perfunctory  signature.  The  compartment  descriptions 
included  data  on  area,  boundaries,  slope  and  aspect,  soil,  stand 
by  species,  age  and  growth,  with  descriptive  notes  on  logging 
routes.  An  example  of  a  compartment  ^^  description  is  given 
below;  it  is  officially  termed  "record  of  reconnaissance." 

Compartment  L.  —  Canton  Arza. 


Area  20  hectares  (49  acres). 


Age  I 


Lower  story:   60  years. 


The  soil  of  this  compartment  is  a  sandy  loam,  quite  deep. 
Moreover,  because  of  the  dense  stand,  it  is  fresh  and  covered 

^  Bavella  plan  of  Jan.  6,  1855,  pp.  17-18. 


WORKING   PLANS   AND    CULTURAL   METHODS  129 

with  a  sufficiently  thick  bed  of  humus.  It  is  in  good  condition 
for  growth.  The  stand  consists  of  very  even-aged  Corsican 
pine  poles  of  about  60  years.  This  stand  of  poles  is  topped  all 
over  the  compartment  by  quite  a  number  of  old  trees  which 
should  be  cut  to  free  the  underwood,  for  the  understory  is  dense 
and  only  a  few  old  trees  can  be  cut  at  one  felling. 

A  sHghtly  later  working  plan  ^^  followed  this  outline: 

Name,  location,  chmate,  boundaries,  area,  quarries,  drainage, 
game,  forest  houses,  roads  and  trails,  topography  and  soil, 
species  and  their  condition.  Rights,  trespass,  patrol,  marketing 
timber,  sale,  price,  minor  products.  Forest  description  empha- 
sizing soil  and  stand,  recapitulation  (a  general  review  of  the 
stand).  Under  the  general  felling  plan  is  included  data  on  the 
system  of  cutting,  "chances,"  rotation,  periods  and  periodic 
block,  formation  of  the  first  periodic  block,  special  regulation 
of  felling  for  the  first  period,  sequence  of  feUings,  yield,  reserve 
(of  growing  stock  or  yield),  carrying  out  the  working  plan. 
Recent  working  plans  in  Corsica  follow  more  closely  the  methods 
and  outlines  used  in  France. 

Object  of  Management.  —  The  early  authors  of  working 
plans  based  their  recommendations  upon  the  need  of  disposing 
of  the  overmature  trees  (excess  growing  stock  in  many  cases), 
the  practical  logging  requirements  necessitating  a  large  cut  on 
account  of  the  high  cost  of  road  construction  and  in  order  to 
regularize  the  stands  for  management  under  the  shelterwood 
system.  What  strikes  one  as  rather  unfortunate  is  the  almost 
total  lack  of  accurate  local  growth  study  upon  which  to  base 
conclusions.  In  order  to  secure  large  cuts  no  systematic  attempt 
has  been  made  to  secure  an  annual  sustained  yield;  a  periodic 
cut  has  usually  been  recommended. 

System  of  Cutting  ^  Shelterwood.  —  The  shelterwood  system 
of  cutting  was  first  selected  as  being  best  adapted  to  the  Corsican 
pine.  There  were  extensive  areas  of  even-aged  stands,  the  top 
story  often  mature  and  over-mature.  What  could  be  more 
natural  than  the  prompt  removal  of  these  old  trees  in  order  to 
free  the  understory  and  to  secure  a  large  cut?  These  methods, 
"  For  the  forest  of  Marmano,  dated  Feb.  4,  i860. 


130  CORSICA 

in  fact,  were  adopted,  and  were  in  part  successful.  A  working- 
plans  officer  writes:  ^^ 

"Most  of  the  first  periodic  block  can  be  considered  regen- 
erated, and,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  areas,  there  is  nothing 
to  do  but  go  ahead  with  the  final  felling  of  the  large  trees 
which  prevent  the  development  of  the  seedlings." 

Yet  the  same  writer  records  that  since  i860  the  forest  has  a 
very  irregular  aspect  because  of  windfalls  which  followed  fell- 
ings. From  the  silvical  standpoint  the  former  management  is 
criticised ^^  because  of  "the  enlargement  of  the  felling  areas  of 
mature  timber  which  have  transformed  the  shelterwood  method 
into  poorly  arranged  selection  felHngs"  and  because  of  "the 
omission  of  suitable  measures  to  insure  regeneration  and  to 
protect  the  young  seedlings." 

In  the  Marmano  forest:  ^°  "The  pine  stands  have  the  appear- 
ance of  an  old,  high  forest  in  need  of  regeneration;  the  fires 
have  run  over  the  entire  forest  and  the  butts  of  almost  all  the 
large  trees  are  charred  by  fire;  timber  of  average  size  and  sap- 
Hngs  are  almost  entirely  lacking  .  .  .  the  forest  has  never 
been  regularly  cut  over."  It  is  thus  certain  that  the  dangerous 
fire  conditions  were  well  appreciated  before  the  shelterwood 
system  was  adopted.^^ 

In  the  early  working  plan  quoted  the  system  was  described  as 
consisting  of  natural  seeding  and  thinnings,  with  the  modifi- 
cation from  the  usual  shelterwood  method,  however,  that  the 
customary  secondary  felling  should  be  omitted. 

Failures.  —  In  a  later,  revised  plan  ^^  for  the  Marmano  forest, 
it  is  concluded  that  the  shelterwood  system  has  proved  a  failure 
because  of  fires;  that  for  this  reason  it  is  necessary  to  retain 
some  of  the  large  timber  on  the  ground;  thus  "the  localization 
of  age  classes  presents  a  serious  danger  in  the  conifer  forests  of 
Corsica,  where  there  are  always  conflagrations." 

^  Working  plan  for  Valdoniello  forest,  Dec.  20,  1900,  p.  15. 

29  Id.,  p.  19. 

^^  Marmano  working  plan,  Feb.  4,  i860,  p.  4. 

3'  Yet  it  is  stated  that  a  light  ground  fire  on  good  soil  often  favors  reproduction. 

'2  Marmano  working  plan,  Dec.  5,  1907,  pp.  13-14. 


WORKING   PLANS  AND    CULTURAL  METHODS  131 


Fig.  20.  —  A  heavy  selection  cutting  in  the  Forest  of  Aitone. 


132  CORSICA 

The  results  ^^  of  the  shelterwood  system  in  the  forest  of  Aitone 
were  also  unsatisfactory:  the  regeneration  was  poor,  the  fir 
came  in  to  the  exclusion  of  the  pine,  the  valuable  merchantable 
stand  had  been  seriously  diminished,  and  there  was  need  for 
artificial  regeneration.     Rather  a  pessimistic  outlook! 

In  the  forest  of  Vizzavona,^^  again,  the  regular  regeneration 
fellings  were  unusually  successful,  but  in  1866  the  young  stands 
left  after  the  felHngs  were  completely  wiped  out  by  fire.  The 
forest  was  once  more  burned  over  in  1896. 

Selection  System  Adopted.  —  As  early  as  1887  ^'  these  failures 
were  so  apparent  that  the  selection  system  was  considered 
more  rational.  Yet  at  that  time  in  the  federal  forests  there 
were  18  working  groups  of  regular  high  forest  and  2  of  selection; 
in  the  communal  forests  there  were  7  working  groups  of  regular 
high  forest,  i  of  selection,  and  i  of  coppice. 

Advantages.  —  The  main  reason  for  the  change  was  that 
with  the  selection  system  the  fire  danger  is  less  grave.  Aside 
from  direct  loss  in  wood  and  other  products  the  working  plans 
were  entirely  invalidated  by  the  fires  and  in  a  day  rendered 
obsolete. 

Moreover,  as  stated  in  the  last  Marmano  working  plan,  the 
selection  system  which  is  proposed  is  better  for  the  soil  in  high 
mountain  areas,  it  will  assure  regeneration  because  it  keeps 
the  forest  in  a  perpetual  state  of  regeneration,  it  will  permit 
the  carrying  out  of  thinnings  at  the  time  of  the  main  fellings; 
and  the  large  trees  retained  will  be  an  insurance  against  the 
complete  failure  of  natural  regeneration,  or  in  case  of  fire. 

The  conclusions  of  the  present  conservator  were,  that: 

"The  high  forests  of  the  island  are  chiefly  (84  per  cent) 
composed  of  fight-demanding  species:  holm  oak,  Corsican 
and  maritime  pine.  It  would  therefore  seem  that  the  proper 
treatment  to  adopt  .  .  .  would  have  been  that  adapted  to 
a  regular  high  forest  (thinnings  with  regeneration  by  suc- 
cessive concentrated  felHngs).  In  reafity  this  method  has 
been  appHed;    but,  for  non-silvical  reasons  it  has  been  aban- 

^  Aitone  working  plan,  Sept.  19,  1890,  p.  7. 

^  Vizzavona  working  plan,  1868. 

^  Unpublished  report  in  official  files,  1887. 


WORKING   PLANS   AND    CULTURAL   METHODS  1 33 

doned.  The  fires,  unfortunately  so  frequent  in  Corsica,  were 
really  disastrous  and  deadly  for  young  even-aged  regular 
stands  obtained  by  the  high  forest  method;  their  destruction 
often  made  blanks  of  great  area  in  the  stands.  On  the  other 
hand  the  treatment  in  irregular  or  selection  high  forest  (where 
the  reproduction  is  secured  by  scattered  felhngs)  leaves  all 
over  the  forest  mature  seed  trees,  which,  because  of  thick 
bark,  can  resist  the  fire.  Young  growth  killed  by  fire  is  thus 
replaced  entirely  by  nature. 

"It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  selection  system  has  been 
adopted  finally  in  Corsica  for  all  species,  instead  of  the  regular 
high  forest." 

Application.  —  The  selection  system  finally  adopted  is  essen- 
tially a  group  selection,  or,  as  it  was  named  by  de  Lapasse, 
the  "Ecumoire"  (a  perforated  ladle  used  by  cooks  for  skimming 
soup)  system  of  cutting,  where  httle  holes  are  made  in  the 
stand.  It  is  regular  enough  to  warrant  thinnings  and  yet 
irregular  enough  to  avoid  the  extreme  fire  dangers  of  even- 
aged  stands.^^  An  unpublished  official  description  of  the  system 
in  use  is  as  follows: 

"Since  every  pine  is  essentially  a  hght-demanding  species, 
in  order  to  obtain  natural  regeneration  it  is  necessary  to 
open  up  the  soil  quite  freely,  because  a  cover  is  not  necessary 
for  the  seedlings.  The  stand  which  results  from  these  pre- 
tended selection  felhngs  does  not  necessarily  have  any  simi- 
larity with  the  theoretical  selection  high  forest;  it  is  formed 
of  large  patches  of  timber  of  the  same  size,  often  of  the  same 
age,  which  follow  each  other  irregularly.  The  size  of  the 
opening  necessary  to  give  all  the  light  required  for  the  de- 
velopment of  the  seedUngs  depends  on  the  slope,  the  total 
height  of  the  stand,  and  on  the  condition  of  the  soil.  It 
cannot  be  fixed  in  advance,  but  the  canopy  may  be  freely 
interrupted,  since  the  entrance  of  dangerous  winds  need  not 
be  feared." 

But  perhaps  the  most  complete  official  description  of  the 
present  selection  method  is  given  in  the  Aitone  working  plan, 
Art.  8,  dated  Nov.  30,  1907.  Here  the  degree  of  regularity 
aimed  at  is  well  described : 

^  Valdoniello  working  plan,  Dec.  20,  1900,  pp.  6-7. 


134  CORSICA 

"The  volume  of  trees  0.35  metre  (14  inches)  and  over  in 
diameter,  however  realized,  shall  be  counted  against  the  yield. 
The  forest  agents  shall  be  free  to  use  whatever  method  seems 
satisfactory  in  estimating  the  fellings.  If  it  consists,  however, 
of  the  chief  or  accidental  yield,  they  will  have  to  use  the 
volume  tables  which  were  used  in  estimating  the  growing  stock. 

"  The  fellings  will  remove: 

"(i)  All  the  trees  that  are  dead,  defective,  overmature,  or 
completely  decayed. 

"(2)  Trees  measuring  less  than  0.35  metre  (14  inches)  in 
diameter  which  are  not  required. 

"(3)    Small  trees  without  any  future. 

"  The  agents  should  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  the  selec- 
tion method  should  not  be  considered  as  an  empirical  process 
in  which  one  is  hmited  to  recruit  the  yield  from  dead  trees, 
those  ovennature  or  of  large  size.  ...  It  includes  the  same 
operations  as  the  method  of  regular  high  forest  (seed  felHngs, 
secondary,  final,  cleanings,  thinnings). 

"  That  which  chfferentiates  the  two  methods  is  that  with  the 
shelterwood  system  the  same  kind  of  operations  follow  con- 
secutively and  are  consequently  massed  in  a  district  .  .  . 
while  that  in  the  selection  system  these  operations  are  scat- 
tered over  the  whole  area  of  'the  forest  in  little  spots.  It 
therefore  follows  that  the  fellings  protect  one  another,  so  to 
speak.  Do  not  imagine  therefore  that  the  selection  system 
confines  itself  to  realizing  the  large  timber  alone.  It  is  neces- 
sary, within  the  perimeter  of  each  felHng  area,  to  practice 
all  the  essential  cultural  operations;  to  free  the  young  growth, 
to  thin  the  stands  that  are  too  thick,  to  cut  out  the  trees 
with  no  future  and  never  to  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  the 
really  profitable  growth  is  that  which  takes  place  in  the  trees 
destined  to  remain  until  the  end  of  the  rotation.  At  the 
same  time  one  must  avoid  the  tendency  to  regularize  the 
stands  by  allowing  any  particular  age  class  to  dominate  a 
large  area  just  as  one  must  avoid  breaking  the  cover  syste- 
matically to  give  it  the  aspect  of  a  selection  forest  when 
managing  a  regular  high  forest  of  good  growth." 

Only  one  official  reference  to  the  size  of  the  openings  to  be 
made  has  been  found: 

^^  ".    .    .    in  the  stands  of  Corsican  pine  it  will  be  best, 
whenever  the  density  of  the  stand  will  permit  it,  to  proceed 
2'  Marmano  working  plan,  Dec.  5,  1907,  p.  14. 


WORKING   PLANS  AND    CULTURAL  METHODS  135 

by  removing  groups  of  trees  so  as  to  cut  up  the  stand  into 
openings  of  0.03  to  0.04  hectare  (0.074  to  0.098  acre)  so 
that  the  seedHngs  of  this  species  will  receive  the  Ught  they 
require." 

Coppice.  —  In  1911^^  two-thirds  of  the  communal  and  federal 
forests  under  working  plans  were  high  forest  (selection)  and  but 
one-third  in  coppice.  The  same  general  coppice  methods  are 
applied  as  in  France  proper.  In  Corsica  the  coppice  is  managed 
chiefly  for  charcoal  and  fire  wood;  hohn  oak  is  favored  against 
other  species.  Private  coppice  is  cut  at  irregular  intervals  on 
short  rotations  without  waiting  for  silvical  maturity;  perhaps 
this  explains  in  part  why  one-third  the  island  is  covered  with 
mere  brush  or  maquis. 

Marking  Corsican  Pine.  —  Were  it  not  for  the  extensive 
grazing  by  goats  it  is  certain  that  with  successful  fire  protection, 
regeneration  of  Corsican  pine  would  be  simple,  barring  periodic 
droughts  during  the  summer  season.  Being  a  hght-demanding 
species  the  tree  is  well  adapted  in  theory  to  the  shelterwood 
system.  However,  we  have  cited  the  reasons  why  a  group 
selection  method  of  regeneration  has  been  given  the  preference. 
But  the  key  note  to  the  system,  as  apphed,  is  that  the  cuttings 
are  irregular  and  in  small  patches,  with  periodic  thinnings 
(which  in  the  past  have  been  sadly  neglected)  in  the  poles. 
According  to  recent  inspections^^  the  marking  has  been  too 
heavy,  particularly  in  the  protection  zone,  and  local  inspectors 
are  advised  to  resist  the  insistent  demands  from  communes  for 
heavy  fellings. 

Two  0.40-hectare  (i-acre)  sample  plots  were  laid  out  in  the 
Valdoniello  forest  in  a  mature  stand  of  Corsican  pine,  where 
there  was  no  regeneration  because  of  overgrazing;  in  general 
appearance  the  stand  was  identical  with  the  optimum  mature 
western  yellow  pine  stands  on  a  rich  soil  in  Arizona  or  New 
Mexico.  It  is  significant  that  less  than  one-fourth  the  volume 
was  marked  for  cutting,  whereas  of  the  western  yellow  pine  grow- 
ing on  drier  soil  at  least  two-thirds  has  been  usually  cut. 

^  Unpublished  notes  by  de  Lapasse. 
39  Annual  report  for  19 10,  de  Lapasse. 


136 


CORSICA 
TABLE   19.  — CUTTING 


Diameter  breasthigh. 

Acre  A . 

Acre  B. 

Centimetres. 

Inches. 

Marked. 

Unmarked. 

Marked. 

Unmarked. 

35 
43 
50 
58 

56 
18 
80 
42 
04 
66 
28 
90 
52 
14 
76 

14 
17 
20 

23 
26 
29 
32 

11 

41 
44 

I 
I 

I 

S 

5 

I 
I 

I 
2 

10 

7 
5 
5 
4 
3 

66 

73 
81 

I 

88 

96 
104 
III 

I 

I 

Totals 

5 

42 

6 

34 

This  was  virtually  a  light  improvement  cutting,  with  the 
addition  of  a  few  of  the  best  veterans. 

It  is  always  possible  to  mark  heavier  at  the  next  felling  and 
the  present  tendency  is  unmistakably  toward  lighter  marking, 
owing  to  the  object  lessons  of  past  sales  where  too  many  trees 
were  removed. 

An  inspection  of  the  Valdoniello  forest  cutting  justifies  the 
following  deductions  as  to  marking:  where  the  stand  is  open 
though  mature,  but  with  poor  regeneration,  only  fungus  in- 
fected or  defective  trees  are  cut;  on  a  ridge  trees  are  usually 
left  for  seed  until  they  are  actually  dead  or  dying;  along  roads 
trees  are  left  for  shade  and  for  scenic  purposes,  one  inspector 
going  to  the  extreme  of  leaving  a  few  dead  trees  that  he  thought 
added  to  the  picturesqueness  of  a  rural  highway. 

On  a  slope  where  the  regeneration  had  come  in  on  fully  three- 
fourths  of  the  area,  one-half  to  three-fifths  of  the  scattering  over- 
story  was  cut.  The  removal  included  mature  and  defective 
trees.  Yet  many  mature  trees  shading  regeneration  were  left 
in  accordance  with  the  poHcy  of  irregularizing  the  forest  as  a 
fire  protective  measure.  One  of  the  unfortunate  features  of 
marking,  in  Corsica  (as  in  other  parts  of  Europe),  is  the  yield 
limitations  which  often  hinder  the  application  of  correct  silvical 
marking.  The  problem  often  arises:  given  a  cut  of  400  cubic 
metres  (14,125  cu.  ft.),  which  should  be  distributed  over  an 
area  of  27  hectares  (66  acres),  what  trees  shall  be  cut? 


FOREST  REGULATION  AND   YIELD  137 

FOREST  REGULATION   AND   YIELD 

Rotation.  ^  The  first  plan  for  the  Marmano  forest  (i860) 
fixed  the  rotation  for  Corsican  pine  at  125  years,  but  this  was 
established  not  on  the  rate  of  growth,  but  rather  on  the  regen- 
eration requirements  and  was  admittedly  transitory.  In  1890 
the  rotation  for  the  forest  of  Aitone  was  still  160  years,  and  in 
1855  the  working-plans  officer^"  wrote: 

"The  growth  of  the  Corsican  pine  is  vigorous  up  to  100 
or  120  years;  it  will  stand  quite  a  long  time  further  before 
showing  marked  signs  of  declining  vigor  at  160  or  180  years. 
It  is  at  this  age  only  that  the  tree  commences  to  have  a  little 
sapwood  and  to  be  valuable  for  trade;  it  should  be  cut  before 
200  years  to  have  sound  material.  A  hundred  and  sixty 
years  will  be  just  a  normal  rotation  for  the  Corsican  pine." 

The  first  rotation  established  for  the  Valdoniello  forest  was  1 20 
years.  The  results  of  these  short  rotations,  120  to  160  years, 
have  proved  unsatisfactory.  They  have  resulted  in  overcutting; 
insufficient  time  has  been  allowed  for  the  growth  of  trees  to  a 
merchantable  size,  and  trees  after  120  years  are  in  most  cases 
occasionally  liable  to  complete  destruction  by  fire.  From  the 
year  1907  all  the  rotations  for  Corsican  pine  have  been  placed 
at  360  years,^^  the  time,  it  is  estimated,  a  tree  reaches  0.00  to 
I  metre  (o  to  3  feet)  in  diameter;  but  counting  rotations  in 
force  before  1907  they  vary  from  240  to  360  years.  It  is 
claimed  that  trees  of  this  size  must  be  furnished  by  federal  or 
communal  forests  to  supply  the  demand  for  large  timbers. 

On  account  of  the  rough  and  mountainous  character  of  the 
higher  ridges  there  is  usually  in  each  forest  a  protection  block 
where  no  definite  rotation  can  be  applied.  According  to  the 
Aitone  working  plan,  dated  Nov.  30,  1907,  no  rotation  is  given 
for  the  Corsican   pine  because    ..."  their   preservation  on 

^  Bavella  working  plan,  Jan.  6,  1855,  Part  III. 

*'  This  is  probably  the  longest  official  rotation  for  a  conifer  on  record;  judging 
from  the  few  stump  analyses  made  this  rotation  is  at  least  a  century  or  a  century 
and  a  half  too  long;  owing  to  past  overcutting  the  French  deemed  it  a  wise 
policy  to  increase  the  growing  stock  by  using  long  rotations.  This  decision  was 
backed  up  by  the  demand  for  large-sized  trees  and  because  of  the  greater  immu- 
nity of  such  trees  from  fire. 


138  CORSICA 

the  stump  is  indispensable  to  prevent  slides,  avalanches  .  .  . 
it  therefore  results  that  a  physical  felling  system  should  be 
appHed."  .  .  .  "yield  by  area".  .  .  "biennial  fellings";  in 
the  words  of  the  working  plan,  "The  new  working  plan  put 
in  force  will  diminish  the  yield  materially  .  .  .  the  new  state 
of  affairs  will  have  the  great  advantage  of  giving  to  this  forest 
the  rest  which  it  needs,"  the  latter  condition  being  due  to  past 
overcutting. 

Periods.  —  With  the  present  360-year  rotation  the  Valdo- 
niello  plan  makes  15  periods  of  24  years  each,  and  they  pro- 
pose to  cut  0.399  "of  the  available  volume  in  each  compart- 
ment." In  the  Aitone  forest,  with  the  same  rotation,  there  are  3 
periods  of  1 20  years  each,  and  the  yield  is  cut  in  triennial  feUings. 

Yield.  —  Owing  to  the  past  excessively  short  rotations,  the 
necessity  for  road  development  through  large  sales  and  to  fires, 
and  because  on  some  forests  the  pick  of  the  merchantable  timber 
has  been  culled,  the  yield  (even  including  a  reasonable  dimi- 
nution of  the  excess  growing  stock)  has  been  exceeded.  For 
some  time  all  sales  on  the  Vizzavona  and  Bavella  forests  have 
been  necessarily  suspended.  The  cut  in  the  past^-  has  been 
applied  in  two  ways:  where  feasible  by  annual  or  periodic  sales 
in  accordance  with  the  working-plan  prescriptions;  in  other 
cases  at  irregular  intervals  on  special  recommendations  because 
of  an  emergency,  on  account  of  windfall  or  overmature  timber. 
These  methods  have  usually  given  excellent  results. 

Overcutting.  —  The  error  of  overcutting  has  also  been  occa- 
sioned by  other  causes.  In  the  forest  of  Aitone,  for  example, 
the  working  plan  "^^  criticises  the  past  treatment  because  the 
yield  has  been  seriously  exceeded. 

"A  yield  much  too  large,  and  based  on  wood  suitable  for 
lumber,  and  not  on  the  total  volume,  including  branches  and 
tops,  has  been  taken. 

"  The  absence  of  a  protective  zone  carefully  planned,^  which 

^  Unpublished  ofi&cial  report  in  files,  dated  1887. 

*^  Valdoniello  working  plan,  Dec.  20,  1900,  p.  19. 

«  The  present  protective  zone  comprises  3029.5  hectares  (7486  acres)  of  which 
14.5  hectares  (35  acres)  of  openings  can  be  restocked,  but  1938-3  (4789  acres)  are 
unproductive  rocks. 


FOREST   REGULATION  AND   YIELD  139 

has  permitted  the  executive  officers  to  locate  fellings  area  in 
the  parts  altogether  too  elevated,  where  the  regeneration  will 
be  problematic." 

In  1840  there  were  listed  391,591  cubic  metres  (13,828,644 
cu.  ft.)  of  saw  logs  and  707,079  steres  (24,969,758  stacked  cu.  ft.) 
of  fuel;  in  1896  the  total  growing  stock  was  567,217  cubic  metres 
(20,030,701  cu.  ft.).  For  the  13  years  prior  to  1900  the  yield 
in  francs  was  25,079.09  ($4840.26)  but  the  1900  working  plan 
(Part  V)  reduced  the  allowable  annual  yield  to  11,746  francs 
($2266.97),  or  less  than  half.  The  precaution  had  been  taken 
to  cahper  the  defective  and  sound  trees  separately,  to  drive 
home  the  past  error  of  cutting  the  yield  from  the  best 
timber. 

In  explaining  the  necessary  reduction  in  cut  the  1907  Mar- 
mano  plan  reviews  the  past  yield: 

1858  to  1870     3000  cubic  metres  (105,942  cu.  ft.)  excluding  ^^ 

tops  and  branches. 
1871  to  1882     2 1 14  cubic  metres    (74,654  cu.  ft.)    excluding 

tops  and  branches. 
1883  to  1907       483  cubic  metres    (17,057   cu.   ft.)   excluding 

tops  and  branches. 
1908  767  cubic  metres   (27,086   cu.   ft.)   excluding 

tops  and  branches. 

Some  forests,  according  to  de  Lapasse,  were  deliberately 
overcut  in  order  to  pay  for  the  road  system,  but  these  have 
now  recovered.  One  of  the  greatest  drawbacks  was  the  poor 
market,  which  apparently  made  it  necessary  to  leave  un- 
sound trees  standing  because  only  the  best  timber  could  be 
sold. 

Production.  —  The  production  for  the  forested  area  amounts 
to  but  0.950  cubic  metre  (33  cu.  ft.)  per  hectare  per  year  for 
the  total  areas.    The  annual  production  may  be  summarized :  ^^ 

^  Tops  and  branches  are  usually  calculated  at  10  per  cent  of  the  stem;  but 
the  unsound  trees  are  estimated  to  contain  only  one-fourth  their  total  volume  in 
merchantable  material. 

■'^  Furnished  by  de  Lapasse;  see  also  statistics,  page  209. 


I40 


CORSICA 
TABLE   20 


Firewood.  ' 

Lumber. 

Total. 

Cu.m. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.m. 

Cu.  ft. 

Cu.m. 

Cu.  ft. 

Federal  forests 

Communal  forests. .  . 

Private  and  commu- 
nal forests  not  un- 
der management 

16,902 
45,180 

[32,755 

596,877 
I, 595,486 

1,156,710 

12,405 
8,695 

17.566 

438,069 
307,055 

620,332 

29,307 
53,875 

50,321 

1,034,946 
1,902,541 

1,777,042 

Totals          

94-837 

3.349.073 

38,666 

1,365,456 

133.503 

4,714.529 

Yield  Calculations.  —  An  example  of  how  the  yield  is  calcu- 
lated is  quoted  from  the  1907  Marmano  plan,  where  the  rela- 
tionship between  the  old  and  average  timber  is  not  far  from  the 
normal  proportion  of  f  to  f ,  namely: 

61,000.89  (old  timber)  61 

38,389.72  (average  timber)        38 


whereas  the  normal  proportion  should  be 


62 

37' 


"To  obtain  the  annual  yield  in  the  pine  block  during  the 
first  period  it  is  (accurate)  enough  to  divide  the  volume  of 
the  old  wood,  Corsican  pine,  by  I  the  rotation,  or  120.     This 

.    ,   ,     .  ,  61,000.89  „  „      .  r     N     • 

yield  IS  then  =  308. jjj  or  308  (17,939  cu.  ft.)  m 

round  figures. 

To  this  is  added  a  cut  of  259  cubic  metres  (9146  cu.  ft.)  of 
maritime  pine,  making  a  total  cut  of  767  cubic  metres  (27,085 
cu.  ft.)  including  branches,  as  against  3000  cubic  metres 
(105,942  cu.  ft.)  in  1870,  excluding  branches." 

The  details  of  yield  regulation  in  French  selection  forests  will 
be  discussed  in  a  later  volume,  entitled  American  Forest 
Regulation. 

SALES  METHODS   AND   CONTRACTS  —  TURPENTINE    LEASES 

Timber  and  Wood  Sales.  —  The  essential  features  of  the 
methods  of  selling  timber  in  France  will  be  described  in  detail 
in  a  forthcoming  publication. 

The  same  methods  are  used  in  Corsica  where  all  sales  of 
importance  are  auctioned,  even  the  long-term  sales  for  large 


SALES  METHODS  AND   CONTRACTS  141 

amounts  which  are  made  only  in  Corsica,  Tunisia,  Algeria 
(French  China),  and  in  parts  of  the  Pyrenees  where  there  is 
a  poor  demand  owing  to  lack  of  communications. 

Sales  Contract  Conditions.  —  The  sales  contract  conditions 
in  Corsica  (approved  in  1909)  follow  very  closely  those  given 
in  the  standard  sales  circular  for  France  proper;  the  differences 
are  minor  ones  and  are  due  to  different  local  conditions.  Owing 
to  the  amount  of  dead  wood  and  windfalls  during  a  long  sale 
period  special  provision  is  made : 

"Art.  20.  The  standing  dead  wood  or  snags  within  the 
felling  areas  which  may  not  have  been  marked  for  felling 
because  of  advanced  decay,  and  the  wood  resulting  from  roads 
and  fire  hnes,  shall  become  a  part  of  the  sale.  The  'maquis' 
(brush)  is  also  included,  except  in  high  forest  felling  areas 
marked  for  cutting.  So  far  as  these  latter  fellings  are  con- 
cerned, the  'maquis'  shall  not  belong  to  the  purchaser  unless 
definitely  mentioned  in  the  special  contract  and  in  the  sales 
circular. 

*'Art.  21.  Unless  otherwise  stated  in  the  sales  circular 
and  in  the  advertisement,  the  windfalls  and  dead  wood  within 
the  perimeter  of  the  felling  area  during  the  logging  shall 
belong  to  the  contractor  when  their  (aggregate)  volume  does 
not  exceed  jV  the  volume  of  the  yield  from  the  feUing,  and 
he  shall  be  bound  to  take  them  under  the  conditions  enumer- 
ated in  Part  VI  to  follow,  and  to  pay  for  the  portions  which 
have  a  commercial  value,  at  prices  indicated  in  the  special 
clauses.  The  contractor  shall  be  bound  to  take,  under  the 
same  conditions,  the  stems  bent  by  the  wind  or  damaged  by 
any  cause  aside  from  exploitation,  which  shall  be  shown  him 
by  the  Waters  and  Forests  agent." 

According  to  Art.  25  the  purchasers  are  obliged: 

"i.  To  hmb  clean  with  the  bole  all  trees  felled  and  to  cut 
level  with  the  ground  the  stems  and  the  'maquis'  broken, 
bent  or  overturned  by  the  felling  or  skidding. 

"2.  To  regularly  pile  all  wood,  whether  bole  or  branches, 
cut  up  or  capable  of  being  split  into  billets  measuring  more 
than  0.50  metre  (20  inches)  in  circumference  at  the  small  end. 
"3.  To  remove  and  pile  in  the  same  way  all  wood  less 
than  0.50  metre  (20  inches)  at  the  large  end,  the  chips  from 
felling,  spHtting  or  cording,  the  twigs,  bark  and  other  debris  as 
well  as  the  stems  and  the  '  maquis  '  cut  clean  with  the  ground." 


142  CORSICA 

And  by: 

"Art.  26.  The  purchaser  will  have  the  right  to  peel 
(trees)  standing,  but  with  the  following  restrictions: 

"i.  To  cut  before  peeling,  at  the  foot  of  each  of  the  trees 
marked  for  felling,  an  annular  notch  o.io  metre  (about  4 
inches)  above  the  ground  extending  just  to  the  wood. 

"2.  To  fell  these  trees  at  or  below  the  notch  so  that  the 
bark  of  the  stump  will  wholly  adhere  to  the  circumference 
of  the  stump  surface. 

"3.  To  finish  the  felling  before  the  first  day  of  March 
following  the  date  of  peeling." 

The  privilege  of  tapping  for  resin  is  granted  free: 

"Art.  27.  Unless  otherwise  indicated  in  the  bill  of  sale 
and  in  the  minutes  of  sale,  the  pine  marked  for  felling  can  be 
tapped  for  resin  without  any  special  charge." 

On  account  of  the  great  danger  from  fires,  clearing  around 
points  of  special  hazard  is  obHgatory: 

"Art.  32.  The  purchasers  will  be  bound,  before  starting 
any  fire  on  these  areas,  to  grub  and  completely  clear  the  soil 
of  all  inflammable  material  at  least  2  metres  (7  feet)  wide 
around  these  areas,  and  to  take  besides  every  precaution 
prescribed  by  the  Waters  and  Forest  agent  with  a  view  of 
preventing  (forest)  fires.  It  is  forbidden  to  have  any  lighted 
forge  or  to  fight  any  fire  outside  the  huts  during  the  period 
between  the  15th  of  June  and  the  15th  of  September  inclusive. 
Any  violation  of  this  article  will  render  the  contractor  Hable 
to  the  penalties  prescribed  by  article  148  of  the  forest  code." 

As  in  France  the  purchaser  is  required  to  pay  for  trees  dam- 
aged during  logging,  but  in  Corsica  a  much  lower  scale  of  prices 
is  levied  because  the  prevailing  stumpage  rates  are  correspond- 
ingly less : 

"Trees  from  6  to  11  cm.  (2.4  to  4.3  inches)  inclusive,  o.io 
franc  ($0,019)  per  10  cm.  (3.9  inches)  of  circumference;  from 
12  to  19  cm.  (4.7  to  7.5  inches),  0.20  franc  ($0,038);  from  20 
to  29  cm.  (7.8  to  1 1.4  inches),  0.35  franc  ($0,067);  over  29  cm. 
(11. 4  inches),  0.50  franc  ($0,096)." 

It  is  evident  from  clauses  39  to  41  which  follow  that  the  road 
systems  on  Corsica  forests  are  far  from  complete;  in  fact  one 


SALES    METHODS   AND    CONTRACTS  143 

of  the  justifications  of  the  long-term  sales  for  large  amounts 
is  the  need  of  road  development  which  falls  to  the  purchaser 
as  a  part  of  the  purchase  price  of  the  timber : 

"Art.  39.  The  roads  and  trails  shall  be  built  on  solid 
ground,  following  the  aHgnment  which  will  be  previously 
bench  marked  by  the  cantonment  chief;  the  roads  cannot 
be  covered  over  with  split  wood  or  with  chips  after  the  com- 
mencement of  the  work  of  alignment  by  the  forest  agent. 

''The  bridges  to  be  built  or  repaired  shall  be  constructed 
with  impregnated  (tarred)  wood,  supported  by  masonry  abut- 
ments or  piers;  yet,  under  certain  exceptional  circumstances, 
reserved  for  the  approval  of  the  conservator,  the  contractor 
may  be  permitted  to  lay  the  floor  on  rows  of  piles  and  wooden 
buttresses. 

"Art.  40.  The  trees  to  be  felled  in  order  to  open  up  logging 
roads  shall  first  be  designated  by  the  Waters  and  Forest 
agent  in  charge  and  marked  with  his  hammer,  and  will  belong 
to  the  purchaser  who  will  be  bound  to  take  them  and  pay 
for  them  when  they  have  a  commercial  value,  according  to 
the  prices  fixed  in  the  sales  circular  and  in  the  record  of  sale 
and  under  the  concUtions  given  in  Part  VI  below. 

"The  wood  necessary  for  the  construction  or  repair  of 
bridges,  for  the  maintenance  of  ways  or  corduroying  road 
beds  shall  come  from  trees  marked  for  felling,  either  in  the 
feUing  areas  to  be  cut  over  or  on  the  rights  of  way  of  the 
roads  and  logging  trails;  in  default  of  wood  from  these  sources, 
suitable  to  be  used  for  this  purpose,  the  purchasers  may  be 
authorized,  under,  the  same  conditions  mentioned  above,  to 
take  the  trees  which  shall  be  judged  necessary,  outside  of 
the  feUing  area,  in  the  stands  bordering  the  construction  to 
be  done. 

"Art.  41.  All  roads  shall  always  be  free  and  (so  that) 
they  can  be  put  at  the  disposal  of  the  purchasers  of  near-by 
felling  areas,  without  any  other  obligation  on  their  part 
except  to  repair  the  damages  resulting  from  their  logging." 

Owing  to  the  long  hauls,  lower  prices,  and  lack  of  market  for 
low  quality  fuel  much  debris  must  be  burned  in  the  woods  as 
a  fire  protection  measure : 

"Art.  42.  The  purchasers  shall  have  the  option  of  leaving 
on  the  felling  area  trees  limbed  and  topped,  billets  and  large 
refuse  coming  under  No.   2  of  Article  25.     They  may  also 


144  CORSICA 

be  relieved  of  removing  the  refuse  falling  under  No.  3  of  said 
article,  but  they  must  in  that  event  burn  them. 

''This  burning  can  only  take  place  during  the  period  com- 
prised between  October  i  and  May  31.  It  shall  take  place 
on  areas  designated  by  the  local  Waters  and  Forests  agent 
or  by  his  representative  and  on  dates  which  he  will  fix. 

"The  purchasers  must  take  all  necessary  precautions  to 
prevent  the  spread  of  fire  or  any  damage  whatever  either  on 
Hve  stumps,  in  young  growth,  or  to  reserved  trees.  He  shall 
be  held  responsible  for  the  damages  that  the  burning  may 
occasion,  even  when  they  may  have  been  done  in  the  presence 
of  or  under  the  superintendence  of  Waters  and  Forests  offi- 
cers or  employees." 

What  must  amount  to  a  considerable  obHgation  is  the  re- 
sponsibilities of  purchasers  in  case  of  fire,  lack  of  road  facilities, 
or  any  act  of  Providence  which  might  interfere  or  stop  the 
marketing  of  products  which  they  had  previously  bought  and 
paid  for: 

"Art.  46.  The  purchasers  cannot  claim  any  indemnity, 
reduction,  or  refund  because  of  the  impracticability,  drainage, 
or  poor  condition  of  the  roads  and  trails,  either  Forest  Service 
or  public,  nor  because  of  any  steps  which  may  be  taken  by 
competent  authorities  with  a  view  to  the  preservation,  up- 
keep, or  betterment  of  routes. 

"Art.  61.  The  purchasers  cannot  claim  any  indemnity 
or  refund  in  the  event  of  a  fire  or  when  any  other  act  of 
Providence  may  have  damaged  or  destroyed  the  products 
of  their  felhng  areas  or  even  when  it  may  have  hindered  or 
suspended  the  exploitation  or  logging." 

The  classification  and  joint  measurement  of  the  product, 
when  sales  are  made  on  the  unit  basis,  is  an  interesting  feature. 
According  to  the  first  paragraph  of  Clause  53  evidently  there 
are  occasional  differences  as  to  the  correctness  of  scale. 

"Art.  52.  The  products  (classified)  by  sizes  and  mer- 
chantable quality  and  in  addition  those  destined  to  be  util- 
ized (locally)  by  the  contractor,  shall  be  valued  according 
to  their  contents  in  soHd  cubic  metres  or  in  piled  steres  and 
shall  be  paid  for  at  prices  fixed  for  each  class  by  the  special 
clauses  of  the  sale. 


SALES   METHODS   AND    CONTRACTS  145 

"Art.  53.  The  scaling  will  be  done  by  the  cantonment 
chief  always  in  company  with  the  purchaser  or  his  represen- 
tative duly  notified.  A  record  (scale  report)  shall  be  pre- 
pared which  shall  be  signed  by  the  Waters  and  Forest  agent 
and  the  officiating  inspector  as  well  as  by  the  purchaser.  If 
the  purchaser  is  not  present  nor  represented  during  the 
scahng  or  if  he  will  not  sign  (the  report),  this  shall  be  (duly) 
noted. 

"The  scale  report  shall  be  submitted  for  the  approval  of 
the  conservator  and  when  approved,  the  amounts  due  from 
the  purchaser  will  be  settled.  The  volume  of  the  products 
classed  as  unmerchantable,  of  no  value  and  without  a  use. 
should  be  figured  on  the  scale  report  as  given  free." 

Sales  for  Large  Amounts.  —  So  far  as  can  be  learned  from 
official  sources,  the  main  drawback  to  the  sales  for  large  amounts 
is  that  in  a  number  of  cases  they  have  resulted  in  overcutting; 
their  main  justification  has  been  road  development.  Bearing 
in  mind  that  Corsica  was  settled  over  2000  years  ago  it  is  not 
strange  that  an  island  people  with  no  coal  resources  should 
have  drawn  heavily  on  available  timber  suppHes  both  for  fuel 
and  construction.  The  very  remoteness  of  the  Corsican  pine 
stands,  however,  which  has  saved  them  from  utter  destruction, 
now  makes  the  marketing  of  the  timber  a  matter  of  expense 
and  difficulty  —  insurmountable  obstacles  to  small  sales  where 
no  one  contractor  could  be  held  responsible  for  the  necessary 
road  development.  The  present  conservator,  M.  de  Lapasse, 
does  not  believe  in  these  large  sales,  but  admits  their  necessity 
until  the  road  system  is  developed  for  each  forest. 

Example  of  a  Long-term  Sale.  —  The  special  conditions  ^'' 
for  the  last  large  sale  were  approved  by  the  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture, Jan.  21,  1910,  and  the  auction  was  held  at  Corte,  by 
the  conservator,  July  25,  191 1,  nearly  a  year  and  a  half  later. 
The  printed  circular  gives  the  special  conditions  that  supple- 
ment or  modify  those  of  the  general  sales  circular  for  Corsica. 
It  also  includes  an  exact  estimate  of  the  trees  marked  for  felling; 
by  compartments  there  is  listed  for  each  important  species 
(and  whether  sound  or  unsound)  the  number  of  trees  and  volumes 

'"  A  translation  of  these  conditions  is  given  in  the  .\ppendix,  p.  214. 


146  CORSICA 

in  cubic  metres  by  4-inch  (101.6  millimetres)  diameter  classes. 
A  summary  on  the  same  basis  is  given  for  the  total  cutting 
area,  including  the  15  compartments.  The  aggregate  volumes 
are  also  classified  by  (a)  lumber,  (b)  dimension  stuff,  and  (c) 
cordwood.  This  estimate  forms  the  real  basis  for  the  sales 
price,  and,  of  course,  all  marked  trees  are  carefully  calipered, 
yet  the  trees  that  are  fungus  infected  are  estimated  as  yielding 
only  one-fourth  their  total  volume  in  saw  material. 

For  this  sale  the  resin  yield  per  tree  and  per  year  is  estimated 
at  1.25  htres  (1.3  quarts)  for  maritime  pine  and  i  htre  (about  i 
quart)  for  Corsican  pine.  Two  sets  of  maps  accompany  the 
clauses  and  estimate  —  a  location  map  showing  the  sale  with 
respect  to  transportation  on  a  scale  of  1:100,000;  a  compart- 
ment map  on  a  scale  of  i  :  40,000,  showing  the  boundaries  and 
drainage.  The  road  to  be  constructed  by  the  purchaser,  16,000 
metres  (17,498  yards)  in  length,  is  estimated  to  cost  500,000 
francs  ($96,500)  and  it  is  expected  that  it  will  take  5  years 
before  profitable  logging  can  be  commenced. 

The  total  of  125,058  cubic  metres  (4,416,298  cubic  feet)  of 
merchantable  logs  and  60,101  metres  (2,122,407  cubic  feet)  of 
cordwood  actually  sold  for  225,000  francs  ($43,425),  but  the 
contractor  had  to  pay  stamp  and  registry  charges  of  5716 
francs  ($1103.19)  and  besides  obligated  himself  to  build  roads 
costing  500,000  francs  ($96,500).  This  corresponds  roughly  to 
paying  a  lump  sum  in  advance  for  stumpage  at  15.55  francs 
($3)  per  thousand  board  feet  or  over  12  francs  ($2.32)  per 
cubic  metre  (35  cubic  feet)  ($0,066  per  cubic  foot)  standing. 

The  minimum  price  in  such  sales  is  made  upon  the  basis  of 
neighboring  sales,  but  the  auction  price  itself  may  fall  be- 
low the  estimate,  as  in  the  Asco  sale  where  there  was  no 
bidding. 

To  estimate  the  stumpage  value  of  any  particular  sale,  the 
forest  officer  figures  the  cost  of  putting  the  timber  on  the  market 
and  deducts  this  from  the  estimated  returns.  In  long-term 
timber  sales  in  Corsica,  the  contractor's  profit  is  figured  at  20 
per  cent,  on  account  of  the  unusual  risk;  this  is  double  the 
contractor's  profit  allowed  in  France. 


SALES   METHODS  AND    CONTRACTS 


147 


A  sample  estimate  of  the  stumpage  value  is  given  below. ^^ 
It  is  merely  an  exceedingly  simple  estimate  of  the  sale  value  of 
the  material  with  the  cost  of  putting  it  on  the  market  deducted. 
These  stumpage  value  estimates  are  often  high;  in  one  case 
the  total  value  was  estimated  at  480,000  francs  ($92,640)  or 
2.60  francs  per  cubic  metre  ($0,014  per  cubic  foot),  whereas  the 
price  realized  was  350,000  francs  ($67,550)  or  1.90  francs  per 
cubic  metre  ($0.01  per  cubic  foot). 
Corsican  Pine.  — 

53,635  trees,  111,338  steres  (30,717  cords)  lumber. 
Maritime  Pine.  — 

12,494  trees,  13,720  steres  (3785  cords)   dimension  stuff. 
(And  for  the  two  90,151  steres  (24,872  cords)  of  firewood.) 


TABLE  21 


Sale  price: 

111,338  steres  at  8.50  francs 

(30,717  cords  at  $5.94) 

13,720  steres  at  5.00  francs 

(3,785  cords  at  $3-45) 

90,151  steres  (24,872  cords) ,  no  value 

Deduct: 

Contractors'  profit  of  20  per  cent 

Felling,  160,000  steres  at  2.50  francs  .  . 

(44,142  cords  at  $1.74) 

Fines,  stamp  rights 

Registry 


3  per  cent  of  this  for  administration. 


946,373.00 
68,600.00 


182,649.99 
13,239.80 


1,014,973.00 

202,994.60 
4,000.00 


100.00 
120.00 


[95,889.79 
39.177-96 


19.30 
23.16 


207,214.60 


495,113.40 
14,853.60 


39-992.42 

95.557-89 

2,866  75 


480,259.80 


92,691.14 


i.e.,  3.80  francs  per  cubic  metre  ($2.69  per  cord). 

The  interesting  features  of  this  sale  may  be  summarized  as  ^^ 
follows : 

The  timber  was  sold  standing  with  no  guarantee  as  to  esti- 
mate, nor  insurance  against  total  loss  from  acts  of  Pro\ddence, 
but  provision  is  made  for  the  sale  on  a  unit  basis  of  additional 

^8  Based  on  official  report  for  the  Asco  sale. 

^  Based  on  official  "cahier  des  charges"  for  the  Asco  sale. 


148  CORSICA 

trees  necessarily  cut  during  the  operations;  a  volume  table  is 
given  to  show  how  they  will  be  calculated;  payments  are  es- 
sentially in  advance  of  cutting;  the  period  is  18  years  for  ordi- 
nary felHng  and  20  years  where  the  trees  to  be  felled  are  first 
tapped,  and  no  further  extensions  of  time  are  permissible. 

Cutting  in  any  one  compartment  (really  treated  as  separate 
sales)  must  ordinarily  be  finished  within  three  years.  An 
extension  of  time  may  be  secured,  provided  the  extensions 
for  any  one  compartment  do  not  exceed  two  years.  The  prin- 
ciple of  charging  an  extra  rate  for  a  longer  cutting  period  seems 
especially  interesting.  Since  all  trees  had  to  be  marked  before 
the  special  circular  was  issued  or  the  sale  made,  there  is  pro- 
vision for  a  remark  in  case  the  imprint  "A.  F."  (administration 
forestiere)  is  becoming  obhterated.^'' 

The  risks  the  purchaser  must  run  during  exploitation  must 
be  heavy,  because  the  government  repeatedly  shuns  the  re- 
sponsibiHty  not  only  for  faulty  estimates,  acts  of  Providence, 
such  as  fires,  storms,  avalanches,  floods,  windfall,  insect  attack, 
but  also  for  damage  to  roads  or  delays  in  road  construction  and 
even  in  the  event  of  the  possible  denial  of  special  use  privileges. 

The  purchaser  is  to  be  granted,  if  there  is  no  objection,  the 
necessary  permits  for  special  road  construction,  bridges,  build- 
ings and  the  Hke,  but  every  improvement  except  temporary 
houses  and  logging  or  sawmill  equipment  becomes  the  property 
of  the  commune.  For  example,  the  purchaser  may  be  obliged 
to  build  a  substantial  bridge  on  concrete  foundations,  yet  this 
must  be  turned  over  free  to  the  commune,  when  the  sale  is 
completed. 

As  in  France,  two  methods  of  tapping  are  recognized  in  this 
sale:  (a)  tapping  to  death  when  an  area  is  formally  opened 
for  felhng  and  {b)  tapping  ahve  in  compartments  where  cutting 
is  not  in  progress.  In  (a)  there  are  no  restrictions  as  to  methods 
but  in  (b)  the  following  are  the  essential  rules  to  be  followed: 
only  one  face  is  allowed  at  a  time;  this  face  must  be  begun  above 
the  root  collar  and  continued  vertically;    its  maximum  length 

50  One  of  the  rangers  is  authority  for  the  statement  that  if  a  mark  is  lightly 
burned  over  the  imprint  will  show  for  30  or  more  years. 


SALES   METHODS   AND    CONTRACTS  1 49 

may  be  for  the  first  year  60  centimetres  (24  inches),  "and  each 
of  the  following  years  70  centimetres  (27  inches)  provided  the 
total  height  of  the  face  does  not  exceed  3.40  metres  (4  yards)" 
at  the  end  of  the  5-year  tapping  period.  The  maximum  widths 
are  9  centimetres  (4.54  inches)  the  first  year,  8  centimetres  (3.14 
inches)  the  second,  third,  or  fourth  and  7  centimetres  (2.75  inches) 
the  fifth.  The  incision  below  the  cambium  must  not  exceed 
I  centimetre  (0.39  inch).  New  faces  must,  if  possible,  be  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  tree.  Where  the  full  tapping  term 
cannot  be  enjoyed  the  conservator  has  the  privilege  of  modi- 
fying the  maximum  heights  and  widths.  The  season  for  reg- 
ular tapping  is  March  i  to  October  3 1 . 

Special  Rules.  —  In  order  to  insure  that  the  employees  of 
the  purchaser  take  a  keen  interest  in  observing  the  rules,  it 
is  provided  that  any  individual  may  be  excluded  from  the  sale 
area  for  trespass,  poaching,  or  insubordination. 

A  feature  of  long-term  sales  which  has  perhaps  an  interest 
is  the  possible  change  in  management  during  a  sale  lasting 
20  years.  Suppose  the  purchaser  is  40  years  old  at  the  time 
of  the  sale,  he  has  only  74  chances  in  100  of  living  to  see  the 
sale  completed,  according  to  the  American  mortality  tables 
in  use  by  the  Equitable  Life  Insurance  Co.  If  the  successful 
completion  of  the  sale  depends  on,  let  us  say,  three  partners, 
the  ratio  against  success  is  trebled.  But  subsequent  managers 
cannot  complain  that  in  Corsica  the  conditions  of  the  sale  were 
not  fully  explained  beforehand,  because  the  sale  circular  is  very 
complete  and  all  the  regular  cut  is  marked  before  the  auction. 

Ordinary  Sales  Data.  —  As  the  best  example  of  the  data 
furnished  bidders  before  an  ordinary  auction  the  conservator 
picked  out  the  following: 

"Art.  9.  —  Forest  of  Valdoniello.  Communal  property  of 
Albertacce.     Maneville  Canton  —  Poggi  beat  at  Ciatterino. 

"  Block  I.  Compartment  K  (part).  Management  felling  area 
No.  12.     Lot  I  (North). 

"  Selection  felhng  including  300  Corsican  pine,  2  of  which  are 
windfalls,  marked  for  felling,  on  the  root  and  bole,  with  the 
federal  marking  hatchet,  to  wit: 


I50  CORSICA 

"  Diameters  — 
30^1  (ii-8'')     40(15-7)       50(19-7)       60(23.6)       70(27.6) 
80  (31.5)        90  (35.4)     100  (39.4)     no  (43.3)     120  (47.2) 

"  joo  Corsican  pine  — 

(Number  of  trees  corresponding  to  above  diameter  classes.) 
26  73  45  44  34 

33  15  20  7  3 

"  Estimated  products:  —  Timber,  528  cubic  metres  (18,646  cubic 
feet)  of  logs  (of  which  ^^  cubic  metres  (1165  cubic  feet)  have 
come  from  57  fungus  infected  trees).  Firewood:  1546  steres 
(54,595  cubic  feet).  Total  volume  1559  cubic  metres  (55,054 
cubic  feet).  The  dry  trees,  to  the  number  of  25,  are  valued 
only  as  fuel. 

"  Boundaries.  —  N.  Manevelle  ravine,  dividing  Kne  between 
H.  —  E.:  forest  road  No.  9  —  S:  San  Pietro  ravine.  —  O:  rest 
of  compartment. 

"  Removal.  —  Forest  road  No.  9. 

"  Charges.  —  None." 

After  a  Sale. — After  a  sale  the  forest  is  often  considerably 
damaged.  The  practice  of  skidding  and  hauling  long  lengths 
(for  which  there  is  a  keen  market)  damages  reproduction  and 
skins  the  boles  of  trees  left,  when  the  logs  are  skidded  or  worked 
down  steep  slopes. 

The  utilization  is  far  from  complete,  but  the  Service  has  no 
pecuniary  interest  here,  since  the  usual  sale  is  on  the  stump  and 
full  payment  is  required  before  cutting.  Stumps  are  chopped 
rather  high,  and  tops  are  not  completely  utiHzed.  Occasionally 
the  cutting  area  resembles  the  old-time  American  slash  with 
lots  of  merchantable  timber  left  for  fires,  and  with  poles  topped 
by  the  fall  of  the  veterans.  The  brush  is  now  piled  and  where 
left  to  rot  is  practically  decayed  and  reduced  to  humus  after 
4  or  5  years. 

On  some  areas  the  very  primitive  method  of  hand-saw  cutting 
is  employed  in  the  woods,  in  which  case  the  damage  to  stand- 
ing timber  is  much  less.  Where  the  logs  are  sawed  by  hand 
the  timbers  are  packed  out  on  donkeys  or  mules  to  the  nearest 
road.     The  road  hauling  is  by  mules  or  oxen. 

"  Centimetres.       I  ^^  Inches. 


TURPENTINE   LEASES  151 

1912  Stumpage  Prices.  —  The  official  prices  on  the  stump 
for  the  year  191 2,  as  cited  in  the  timber  sale  circulars  for  the 
different  inspections,  give  fuel  prices  at  1.40  to  2  francs  ($0.27 
to  $0.39)  per  stere  (36  cubic  feet)  for  holm  oak,  i  to  1.20  francs 
($0.19  to  $0.23)  for  beech,  and  20  centimes  ($0.04)  per  stere  (35 
cubic  feet)  for  Corsican  or  maritime  pine.  Sawlogs  are  estimated 
at  2  to  3  francs  ($0.39  to  $0.58)  for  broadleaves,  mostly  beech,  4  to 
4.50  francs  ($0.77  to  $0.87),  and  in  one  case  7  francs  ($1.35)  for 
maritime  pine;  10  per  cent  more  for  fir  than  for  maritime  pine; 
only  5  to  6  francs  ($0.96  to  $1.16)  for  small-sized  or  poorly  located 
fellings  in  Corsican  pine,  but  13  francs  ($2.51)  for  splendid  saw- 
timber  near  a  main  road  in  the  forest  of  Valdoniello.  In  the  vil- 
lages ordinary  timbers  sell  for  60  to  70  francs  ($11.58  to  $13.51) 
per  cubic  metre  (35  cubic  feet),  or  12  to  14  francs  ($2.32  to  $2.70) 
per  "canne."  A  "canne"  consists  of  2  planks  0.25  metre  (9.8 
inches)  wide,  2.5  metres (8.2  feet)  long  and  4  cm.  (1.6  inches)  thick; 
they  figure  4.3  to  4.5  Cannes  to  the  cubic  metre  (35  cubic  feet). 

Turpentine  Operations.  ^  The  rights ''^  to  tap  alive  53,849 
maritime  pine  trees  in  the  forest  of  Zonza  sold  for  15,350  francs 
($2962.55)  in  1908  for  the  5-year  period  1909  to  1913.  Un- 
fortunately, because  of  labor  troubles,  only  18,000  trees,  or 
one- third  of  the  stand,  were  tapped  in  1909;  but  in  1913  the 
lease  was  in  full  swing  and  was  being  profitably  operated.  The 
company  has  installed  a  local  still  at  Zonza,  to  save  the  30- 
mile  wagon  haul  and  ocean  shipping  expense  on  the  raw  product. 

One  of  the  most  promising  features  of  the  lease  is  the  ap- 
parent immunity  from  fires  which  this  area  enjoys.  It  is  known 
that  many. of  the  local  citizens  are  personally  interested  in  the 
operating  company  and  consequently  the  villagers  make  every 
effort  to  keep  out  fire.  The  small  area  of  maritime  pine  which 
prevents  a  larger  enterprise,  and  the  hilly  country  which  in- 
creases the  difficulty  of  tapping  and  collecting  the  resin,  are 
two  important  drawbacks. 

The  yield  ^^  has  been  satisfactory,  but  less  than  in  the  Landes. 
In  1910,  19,000  pines  (each  with  one  face)  yielded  41,600  liters 

^^  Conservator's  annual  reports  for  1910  and  1911. 
^*  Conservator's  reports  for  1910  and  1911. 


152 


CORSICA 


(43,958  quarts)  of  resin  or  2.2  liters  (2.3  quarts)  per  tree 
(Landes  average  2  liters  (2.1  quarts)  per  tree),  while  6000 
trees  yielded  0.32  of  a  liter  (0.34  of  a  quart)  per  tree,  giving 
an  average  of  1.75  liters  (1.8  quarts)  per  tree.  In  191 1  the  aver- 
age was  1.78  Hters  (1.9  quarts)  per  tree.  Taking  a  price  of  115 
francs  ($22.19)  P^r  barrel  of  340  Kters  (359  quarts)  (average 
price  in  the  Landes  for  19 10)  the  gross  yield  of  this  Zonza  sale 

should   be  -^ — X  n^    francs    ($22.19)  ~  cost   of    45    francs 
340 

($8.68)  per  barrel  =  5760  francs  ($1111.68). 

The  same  methods  that  are  appHed  in  the  Landes  for  mari- 
time pine  are  followed  in  Corsica,^^  except  that  the  width  and 
length  of  the  faces  has  been  varied  to  a  small  extent  as  follows: 


TABLE    22.  - 

-5-YEAR   PERIOD,56  ZONZA 

FOREST, 

I 909-1913 

Faces  in  centimetres  and  inches. 

Years. 

Height. 

Width. 

Centimetres. 

Inches. 

Centimetres. 

Inches. 

First                       

60 
60 

65 
65 
70 

23.6 
23.6 
25.6 
25.6 

27.6 

9 
8 
7 
7 
5 

3-54 

Second                  

315 

Third                        .... 

2.76 

Fourth 

2.76 

Fifth 

2.36 

320 

10'  6" 

TABLE    23.- 

-4-YEAR   PERIOD,"   ZONZA 

FOREST, 

1912-1915 

Faces  in  centimetres  and  inches. 

Years. 

Height. 

Width. 

Centimetres. 

Inches. 

Centimetres. 

Inches. 

First    

60 
65 
70 
85 

23.6 
25.6 
27.6 

33   S 

8 

7 

3    54 

Second 

.5I5 

Third   

315 

Fourth 

2.76 

280 

9'   23" 

^5  The  bar  should  be  as  wide  as  the  face  for  tapping  alive.    The  faces  should  be 
placed  first  on  the  north,  then  west,  then  south,  then  on  the  east  side  of  the  tree. 
^^  Office  records  of  conservator. 
57  Vented'une  Coupe  de  bois  avec  extraction  de  resine,  approved  Jan.  30,  1912, 


OTHER   FOREST   ACTIVITIES  153 

There  seems  to  be  little  chance  for  profitably  tapping  the 
Corsican  pine.  The  ground  is  hilly  and  under  the  selection 
system  only  scattered  trees  are  marked  for  felling.  These 
alone  could  be  tapped  to  death,  and  because  of  its  slow  growth 
and  inability  to  heal  wounds  quickly  the  advisabihty  of  tapping 
ahve  is  seriously  questioned. 

Minor  Industries.  —  The  extraction  of  pine  stumps  for 
turpentine  is  encouraged  and  a  very  low  price  has  been  estab- 
lished:  2  francs  ($0.39)  per  stere  (35  cubic  feet). 

The  roots  of  tree  heather  are  grubbed  out  for  pipe  wood. 
About  13  tons  were  exported  from  Bastia  to  England  ^^  in  191 1; 
they  sell  for  5.50  francs  ($1.06)  per  100  kilos  (220  pounds). 
During  1910  over  54,430  quintaux  (6000  tons)  of  raw  roots 
were  extracted. 

The  collection  of  seed,  as  in  France,  can  be  made  only  by 
members  of  the  rangers'  or  guards'  famihes  for  sale  to  the 
administration. 

OTHER  FOREST   ACTIVITIES 

Reforestation.  —  The  only  attempt  at  reforestation  on  a 
large  scale  is  at  Chiavari;  and  this  has  not  been  entirely  a 
success.  The  partial  failure  has  been  because  they  have  en- 
deavored to  sow  an  entire  area  to  cork  oak,  whereas  only  the 
richer  soils  were  suitable.  Moreover,  the  acorns  were  set  too 
deeply  in  the  ground;  12.6  centimetres  (5  inches)  instead  of 
2.5  or  3.8  centimetres  (i  or  1.5  inches).  They  have  learned 
from  this  failure  that  large-scale  planting  operations  should 
only  be  attempted  on  the  basis  of  careful  plans,  drawn  up  by 
practical  planting  experts. 

The  only  other  sowing  on  the  island  has  been  tried  in  a  Cor- 
sican pine  burn  in  the  forest  of  Vizzavona,  where  it  cost  3700 
francs  ($114.10)  to  sow  50  hectares  (123  acres)  by  seed  spots 
I  metre  (39  inches)  by  0.50  metre  (19  inches)  in  size.  The  results 
here  also  have  been  unsatisfactory. 

^  H.  M.  Foreign  Ofl&ce  Diplomatic  and  Consular  Reports;  1910,  p.  7;  1911, 
P-5- 


154 


CORSICA 


Trespass.  —  The  forest  users  are  apparently  lawless  and 
hard  to  control.  Trespass  cases,  when  suits  must  be  brought 
to  enforce  the  collection  of  damages,  make  enemies  for  the 
Service. 

During  my  trip  frequent  and  flagrant  open  grazing  trespass 
was  noted;  also  the  destruction  of  signs,  lopping  birch  for 
goat  feed  even  along  a  central  road  (forest  of  Valdoniello), 
tapping  pine  for  resin  to  be  used  as  medicine,  and  the  theft  of 
green  wood  for  fuel  in  the  forest  of  Valdoniello,  where  the  head 
ranger  permitted  the  use  of  dead  and  down  fuel  without  the 
formaHty  of  a  permit. 

It  is  true,  however,  that  trespass  is  gradually  decreasing. 
In  1886  there  were  12  violations  of  the  law  in  federal  and  7 
in  communal  forests  per  1000  hectares  (2471  acres),  or  an  aver- 
age of  9.5;  in  191 1  this  average  had  fallen  20  per  cent. 

A  comparison  is  given  in  the  following  table  for  the  years 
1886  ^3  and  1911^°: 

TABLE    24 


Kind  of  trespass. 

1886. 

1911. 

Number. 

Per  cent. 

Number. 

Per  cent. 

Fellings  (and  wood) 

281 
654 

28 
63 

9 

297 
275 
20 
117 
120 

36 
33 

Fire 

2 

98 

14 

Fish 

14 

Totals 

1033 

829 

As  a  corollary  to  this  record,  in  598  actions  brought  in  191 1 
(think  of  the  official  work  the  report  and  preparation  of  these 
cases  must  have  consumed!)  314,  or  52  per  cent,  were  acquitted. 

Fire  Protection.  —  Compared  to  the  intensive  fire  protec- 
tion along  the  Cote  d'Azur,  between  Cannes  and  Toulon,  the 
protective  methods  in  use  in  Corsica  are  crude.  Grazing  tres- 
pass, even  in  federal  forests,  is  winked  at  in  order  to  induce 
the  local  population  not  to  set  fires,  but  no   systematic   edu- 

59  Ofiicial  report  dated  1887. 

^  Rapport  de  Prefect,  191 2,  p.  98, 


OTHER   FOREST  ACTIVITIES  1 55 

cational  campaign  has  been  waged,  such  as  would  be  carried 
on  in  the  United  States  under  similar  conditions. 

The  patrol  is  kept  up  during  the  fire  season,  from  May  to 
September,  but  telephone  lines,  regular  lookout  towers,  tool 
boxes  at  danger  points  and  other  details  of  modern  fire  pro- 
tection are  entirely  lacking.  In  19 10  there  were  6330  metres 
(6922  yards)  of  fire  lines  brushed  out;  they  are  officially  con- 
sidered to  be  of  unquestioned  value,  but  too  expensive  under 
past  conditions.  There  ^*  have  been  some  7  and  10  metre 
(8  and  11  yard)  fines,  but  wider  lines  —  at  least  20  metres  (22 
yards)  —  are  now  favored  by  the  conservator.  These  few  fines 
have  been  cleared  with  trespass  labor. 

The  acreage®^  burned  over  in  1910  was  10  hectares  (25  acres) 
in  communal  and  90  hectares  (222  acres)  in  federal  forests; 
in  191 1  the  area  burned  over  was  23.25  hectares  (57  acres)  in 
communal  and  108.12  hectares  (267  acres)  in  federal  forests.  In 
the  past  ^^  there  have  been  periodic  conflagrations  which  have 
resulted  (during  unusually  dry  seasons)  from  incendiarism,  burn- 
ing brush,  personal  vengeance  against  the  guards  after  law- 
suits, camp  fires  followed  by  high  winds.  The  former  preventive 
measures  ^^  are  summarized  as  patrol  and  poficing,  coupled  with 
the  disposal  of  debris. 

As  explained  under  "System  of  Management"  the  adoption 
of  the  shelterwood  system  followed  by  even-aged  stands  was 
the  direct  cause  of  much  damage,  partly  because  the  periodic 
blocks  were  too  large.  But  during  early  sales  the  omission  of 
brush  disposal  caused  incalculable  injury.  To-day  the  brush, 
chips,  and  debris  are  piled  after  felfings  and  are  then  burned, 
provided  this  can  be  done  without  harm  to  young  growth. 

The  main  problem  in  Corsican  fire  protection  seems  to  be 
not  to  guard  against  ordinary  fires,  but  rather  against  those 
extraordinary  conflagrations  which  take  place  periodically  dur- 
ing seasons  of  drought.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  sacrifice 
has  been  made  of  using  the  selection  system  with  a  fight  de- 
manding species. 

*'  Conservator's  report  for  1910. 

^^  Especially  in  the  forests  of  Bavella  and  Zonza. 

^  Unpublished  report  in  official  records. 


156  CORSICA 

Grazing.  —  Since  grazing  in  federal  forests  is  forbidden  by- 
law there  are  no  restrictions  as  to  methods  of  handUng,  such 
as  have  been  formulated,  tried  out,  and  proven  of  value  in  the 
western  United  States.  Under  the  conditions  which  exist  in 
Corsica,  where  the  livehhood  of  so  many  depends  on  the  products 
of  goats,  sheep,  cattle,  and  pigs,  special  laws  recognizing  the 
necessity  for  restricted  grazing  would  have  given  better  results 
than  the  present  system  of  allowing  the  entry  of  stock  sub 
rosa. 

Official  records  place  the  number  of  animals  using  the  com- 
munal mountain  forests  and  grazing  grounds  above  timber 
line  (June  15  to  September  15)  at  31,000  horses,  62,700  cattle, 
198,000  sheep,  and  197,600  goats.  It  is  apparent  from  these 
figures,  that  the  industry  must  be  reckoned  with.  The  present 
trespass  is  committed  when  crossing  forests  in  going  to  and 
from  these  mountain  pastures,  but  the  crossing  is  merely  a 
flimsy  pretext  for  pasturing  excluded  areas. 

Below  the  Corsican  pine  belt  grazing  is  yearlong.  The  usual 
rates  (paid  as  a  communal  tax)  are  as  follows:  Horses  and 
cattle,  I  to  2  francs  ($0.19  to  $0.38)  per  year;  sheep,  o.io  to 
0.25  franc  ($0.02  to  $0.05);  goats  0.25  to  i  franc  ($0.05  to  $0.19); 
pigs  (very  much  like  the  ''razorbacks"  of  the  Appalachians) 
only  from  November  i  to  March  i,  i  to  2  francs  ($0.19  to  $0.38). 

However,  a  gradual  improvement  is  taking  place.  There 
are  now  better  roads  and  good  boat  service  from  France,  and 
drainage  of  swamp  lands  is  receiving  public  attention.^*  But 
even  now,  the  grazing  methods  are  essentially  primitive.  Both 
goats  and  sheep  are  grazed  on  an  estimated  area  of  pasturage 
and  fields  of  57,646  hectares  (142,433  acres).  Considering  the 
amount  of  stock  grazed,  it  is  clear  that  this  open  area  is  not 
sufficient.  The  forests  must  be  pastured,  if  stock  is  to  be  main- 
tained in  good  condition;  according  to  recent  figures,  the  fol- 
lowing must  be  provided  for:  260,000  sheep,  180,000  goats, 
69,000  cattle,  28,300  horses  and  mules,  84,000  hogs,  making 
a  grand  total  of  621,300. 

«"•  Le  Regime  Pastoral  de  la  Corse.  Societe  Forestiere  de  Franche  Comte  et 
Belfort,  XI,  8,  pp.  600-613. 


OTHER   FOREST   ACTIVITIES  157 

Since  the  range  outside  the  forests  is  not  sufficient,  it  means 
a  good  deal  of  crossing  by  stock  from  winter  to  summer  grazings 
and  vice  versa.  There  is  urgent  need  either  for  the  develop- 
ment of  more  grazing  area  or  else  a  reduction  in  the  number 
of  stock.  As  late  as  1852  there  was  actual  armed  conflict 
over  grazing  rights.  This  illustrates  that  the  problem  is  not 
a  simple  one  and  must  be  handled  with  great  tact. 

Quarters.  —  The  ranger  stations  usually  include :  one  or 
more  houses,  a  shed  or  small  barn,  outhouse,  water  system, 
and  fenced  garden.  Separate  rooms  are  provided  for  inspect- 
ing officers,  for  the  ranger,  and  for  each  guard.  The  quarters 
are  commodious ;  at  the  Aitone  forest  house  ^^  there  were  no 
less  than  8  rooms  on  the  second  floor,  kept  vacant  for  the  use 
of  officers  on  inspection  —  a  dining  room,  kitchen,  small  study 
(in  the  hall),  and  5  bedrooms.  The  ranger  was  assigned  a 
kitchen,  combined  hving  and  dining  room  and  bedroom,  and 
each  of  the  three  guards  also  averaged  three  rooms.  Plenty 
of  storage  space  is  provided. 

Besides  these  quarters  there  are  detached  houses  with  only  one  or 
two  rooms,  located  at  strategic  points  as  refuges  or  dinner  camps 
for  caUpering  or  marking  crews,  improvement  laborers ,  and  the  hke. 

At  the  Aitone  forest  house  the  equipment  provided  for  the 
inspecting  officers'  quarters,  of  which  the  ranger  is  custodian, 
was  inventoried  at  2201  francs  ($424.79)  and  included  complete 
kitchen  and  table  service,  beds  and  bedding,  and  generous 
furnishings.  These  quarters  are,  on  written  permission  from 
the  conservator,  put  at  the  disposal  of  visitors  for  a  few  days; 
yet,  as  the  conservator's  order  states,  the  houses  are  not  to  be 
regarded  as  hotels. 

Official  charges  are  posted:  4  francs  ($0.77)  a  day  for  the 
cantonment  chief,  5  francs  ($0.96)  for  other  forest  officers, 
and  6  francs  ($1.16)  per  day  for  ordinary  visitors.  The  6 
francs  ($1.16)  per  day  is  divided  as  follows:  breakfast,  0.50 
franc  ($0.10);  lunch  or  dinner,  2  francs  ($0.39);  lodging,  includ- 
ing linen,  lights,  and  heat,  1.50  francs  ($0.29). 

**  The  name  "forest  house"  seems  more  precise  than  the  term  "ranger  house" 
or  "ranger  station"  used  in  the  United  States. 


158  CORSICA 

A  visitor's  record  is  maintained  to  guard  against  any  abuse 
in  the  renting  of  quarters.  This  includes  name,  rank,  address, 
signature,  date  of  arrival  and  departure,  with  a  column  en- 
titled ''remarks"  for  a  record  of  articles  broken  or  damaged. 

These  houses  are  usually  exceedingly  well  located  with  south- 
ern exposures,  are  provided  with  an  excellent  water  system, 
and  are  conveniently  placed  with  regard  to  .the  work,  particu- 
larly with  a  view  to  watching  the  removal  of  timber  along  main 
outlets.  Yet  the  Papaja  house  in  the  Valdoniello  forest,  within 
9.1  metres  (30  feet)  of  the  main  road,  has  been  found  to  be  too 
close  for  comfort. 

According  to  the  conservator's  report  for  191 1  the  houses 
are  generally  well  maintained,*"^  except  when  the  guards'  wives 
are  away,  but  the  gardens  are  often  allowed  to  run  down. 

Roads  and  Trails.  —  The  roads  and  trails  are  usually  main- 
tained in  good  condition,  but  their  location  leaves  something 
to  be  desired.  A  forest  road,  it  seems,  should  be  laid  out  in 
the  first  place  to  facilitate  logging,  rather  than  as  a  means  of 
egress  to  another  valley  for  the  general  public.  Again,  an 
expensive  trail,  .merely  to  di\'ide  one  block  from  another, 
even  if  it  is  convenient  for  patrol,  should  be  subordinated  to 
logging  trails  of  permanent  value. 

Frequently  the  grade  of  both  roads  and  trails  is  too  easy; 
an  8  per  cent  trail  5  miles  long  is  certainly  less  desirable  than  a 
12  per  cent  trail  with  only  4  miles  to  walk.  The  same  prin- 
ciple appHes  to  roads  with  interminable  windings. 

The  standard  width  for  foot  paths  is  i  metre  (i.i  yards) 
and  for  mule  trails  the  same  width,  but  with  a  widening  to 
1.3  metres  (1.4  yards)  on  the  turns.  A  path  i  metre  (i.i  yards) 
wide  on  easy  ground  costs  by  contract  0.40  to  0.50  franc  ($0.08  to 
$0.10)  per  running  metre,  but  if  by  day  labor  the  cost  with 
supervision  runs  up  to  2  ($0.39)  and  even  3  francs  ($0.58).  For 
trail  in  rocky  difficult  ground  the  contract  price  is  2  to  2.50 
francs  ($0.39  to  $0.48). 

*^  The  maintenance  is  easy  because  they  are  constructed  of  stone;  they  have 
cost  from  9842  to  35,930  francs  ($1899.51  to  $6934.50),  according  to  the  space 
provided. 


OTHER   FOREST  ACTIVITIES  1 59 

In  the  forest  of  Aitone  distances  from  the  forest  house  were 
painted  on  rocks.  For  example  f  means  2  kilometres  300  metres 
(i  mile  755  yards). 

A  favorite  system  of  preventing  erosion  on  steep  trails  is 
to  place  a  row  of  flat  rocks  7.7  or  10.2  cm.  (3  or  4  inches)  wide 
angularly  across  the  trail  with  a  very  shght  depression  behind. 

There  seems  to  be  no  standard  method  of  painting  compart- 
ment letters;  usually  they  are  on  a  tree  trunk  after  the  bark 
has  been  smoothed.  Occasionally  one  sees  the  lettering  on 
rocks.  The  background  is  usually  battleship  grey  with  black 
letters,  or  white  with  black  or  red  letters. 

Uses.  —  As  compared  with  the  liberality  of  the  United  States 
federal  leasing  system  the  forests  of  Corsica  are  practically 
closed  to  use.  Road  rights-of-way,  it  is  true,  are  readily  granted 
as  in  France,  but  the  alignment  must  always  be  made  by  the 
forest  ofhcer.  The  only  uses  granted  are  those  which  arise 
in  connection  with  the  disposal  of  timber,  and,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  sawmills,  no  formal  permits  were  noted.  Yet  the 
utmost  precaution  is  taken  to  see  that  roads,  trails,  or  bridges 
constructed  by  contractors  are  built  so  as  to  permanently 
better  communication.  After  the  use  by  the  purchaser  all 
road,  trail,  and  bridge  improvements  become  the  property  of 
the  commune  or  government.  The  quahty  of  the  construction 
work  is  carefully  supervised,  and  it  is  only  under  exceptional 
circumstances  that  contractors  are  allowed  to  build  wooden 
bridges;  cement  pillars  at  least  would  be  required. 

Before  the  issuance  of  a  permit  to  install  a  sawmill,  the  fol- 
lowing procedure  must  be  adhered  to:  A  written  request  from 
the  permittee,  a  report  by  the  forest  officer,  including  a  location 
map;  approval  by  inspector  and  conservator.  The  usual 
special  clauses  ^^  required  are  as  follows : 

1.  The  authorization  will  terminate  March  i,  1914. 

2.  It  is  granted  free. 

3.  The  areas  will  be  designated  by  the  local  Waters  and 
Forests  agent. 

4.  The   contractor  must    cover    the    smokestacks  with   a 

^  Decision  No.  3965,  July  25,  1912,  conservator's  office  records. 


[6o  CORSICA 

metallic  screen,  fine  enough  to  prevent  the  egress  of  sparks, 
and  must  take  all  the  precautions  which  shall  be  prescribed 
by  the  Waters  and  Forests  agent.  He  shall  also  be  bound  to 
comply  with  the  relating  laws  and  regulations. 

5.  All  the  buildings  and  Hving  quarters  attached  to  the 
sawmill  shall  be  free  for  the  use  of  the  agents  and  employees 
of  the  Waters  and  Forest  agent,  who  may  pass  the  day 
and  night  alone  or  accompanied,  without  the  assistance  of 
a  pubhc  officer  or  witness.  To  facihtate  these  visits  a  key 
to  the  locked  door  of  the  cabins  or  workshops,  if  they  are 
locked,  shall  be  sent  by  the  permittees  to  the  local  guard. 

6.  Messrs.  X  shall  be  bound,  each  time  that  they  wish 
to  haul  to  the  sawmill  or  its  premises,  trees,  billets  or  logs, 
to  send  to  the  local  ranger  a  detailed  statement  showing  the 
source,  number,  and  the  skidway  (where  the  wood  comes 
from).  This  statement  will  be  made  in  dupHcate,  one  copy 
of  which,  signed  by  the  officer  who  approves  it,  will  be  returned 
to  the  permittee.  The  wood  enumerated  will  be  identified 
and  marked  free  of  cost  by  the  local  guard,  within  5  days 
after  notification. 

7.  On  expiration  of  the  permit  the  permittees  must,  within 
15  days,  put  the  place  in  its  original  condition,  fill  up  holes 
which  may  have  been  dug  for  setting  the  mill;  dispose  of 
the  sawdust  which  may  interfere  with  growth;  and  replace 
the  soil  on  the  entire  area  occupied.  In  case  of  violation 
of  these  conditions,  it  will  be  possible  to  proceed  against 
them  (at  their  expense)  as  given  by  Article  41  of  the  Forest 
Code  independently  of  Article  4  of  the  same  code. 


APPENDIX 

The  Algerian  Forest  Code  (p.  i6i).  — Part  I  —  Forest  Regime.  Part 
II  —  Waters  and  Forests  Administration.  Part  III  —  State  Forests:  i,  Bound- 
aries; 2,  Management;  3,  Auctions  of  bark,  felling  areas,  and  sales  by  agreement; 
4,  Exploitation;  5,  Check  of  cutting  area;  6,  Auctions  and  rentals  of  grazing,  mast, 
miscellaneous  forest  products,  and  agricultural  land;  7,  Wood  rights  in  State 
forests;  8,  Expropriation.  Part  IV  —  Communal  and  Public  Institution  Forests. 
Part  V  —  Joint  Tenancy  Forests.  Part  \T  —  Private  Forests,  Reforestation 
Areas,  and  Clearings.  Part  VII  —  Police  and  Conservation  of  Woods  and  Forests: 
I,  Provisions  applicable  to  all  woods;  2,  Provisions  applicable  only  to  woods  and 
forests  placed  under  forest  administration.  Part  VIII  —  Prosecutions  for  Mis- 
demeanours and  Offences:  i,  Prosecutions  undertaken  in  the  name  of  the  Waters 
and  Forests  Service;  2,  Prosecutions  for  misdemeanours  and  ofifences  in  woods 
not  under  forest  administration.  Part  IX  —  Penalties  and  Sentences  Applicable 
to  Woods  and  Forests  in  General.  Part  X  —  Execution  of  Judgments:  i.  Judg- 
ments concerning  misdemeanours  and  offences  in  woods  under  forest  administra- 
tion; 2,  Judgments  concerning  misdemeanours  and  offences  committed  in  woods 
which  are  not  under  forest  administration.     Part  XI  —  General  Provisions. 

Miscellaneous 

Statistics  of  Federal  Forests  in  Corsica  under  Provisional  or  Regular  Working 
Plans  or  Cutting  Regulations  (p.  209). 

Sales  Clauses,  Forest  of  Asco,  Corsica  (p.  214). 
Additional  Hterature  (p.  221), 
Equivalents  (p.  221). 
Index  (p.  223). 

THE  ALGERIAN  FOREST  CODEi 

Part  I  —  Forest  Regime 

Art.  I.  In  Algeria  the  following  are  placed  under  forest 
administration  -  and  are  dealt  with  according  to  the  provisions 
of  the  present  law: 

1.  Woods  and  forests  belonging  to  the  State. 

2.  Woods   and  forests  of  communes  or   sections  of  com- 

munes, which  come  under  the  condition  provided  for 
in  Art.  79. 

'  Translated  by  Miss  Nora  Duff  and  edited  by  the  writer;  so  far  as  possible 
the  literal  translation  has  been  rendered  to  illustrate  the  explicit  language  of  the 
code. 

2  The  "regime  forestier"  refers  of  course  to  the  Algerian  Waters  and  Forests 
Service. 

161 


JV.  C.  State  CoR^ge 

162  THE   ALGERIAN  FOREST  CODE 

3.  Woods  and  forests  of  public  institutions,  which  come 

under  the  same  conditions. 

4.  Woods  and  forests  in  which  the  State,  communes,  or 

pubhc  institutions  have  proprietary  rights  conjointly 
with  private  individuals. 

5.  Ground,   either   covered   with  brush   or   bare,    the   re- 

forestation of  which  has  been  recognized  and  declared 
to  be  of  public  benefit,  under  the  conditions  indicated 
in  Part  III,  Art.  76,  and  in  Part  IV,  Arts.  107,  108, 
109. 

The  following  are  likewise  placed  under  forest  administra- 
tion, but  only  provisionally: 

1.  Woods  and  forests  presumably  belonging  to  the  State 

in  virtue  of  Art.  4  of  the  act  dated  June  16,  1851. 

2.  Woods  and  forests  which  are  in  litigation  either  be- 

tween the  different  classes  of  owners  mentioned  above, 
or  between  one  of  these  owners  and  private  individuals. 

The  woods  and  forests  within  the  territory  under  military 
control  are  placed  under  the  forest  administration,  but  dealt 
with  as  the  Governor  General  shall  direct  or  according  to  any 
regulation  passed  by  the  government  council. 

Part  II.  —  Waters  and  Forests  Administration 

Art.  2.  The  ofhcers^  of  Waters  and  Forests  employed  in 
Algeria  form  part  of  the  staff  of  the  Home  Waters  and  Forests 
and  are  subject  to  its  laws  and  regulations  especially  as  concerns 
promotion. 

They  perform  their  duties  under  the  authority  of  the  Gov- 
ernor General  of  Algeria. 

The  promotions  in  grade  and  class  are  decided  upon  in  accord- 
ance with  the  recommendations  of  the  Governor  General  and 
according  to  grades,  either  by  a  decree  based  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  Minister  of  Agriculture,  or  by  a  resolution  by 
the  Minister  of  Agriculture. 

•■'  The  words  "agents"  and  "preposes"  have  been  taken  to  signify  "officers" 
and  "employees"  to  distinguish  between  the  superior  supervisory  and  the  sub- 
ordinate ranger  force.  Those  having  at  least  the  rank  of  forest  assistant  (garde 
general)  are  locally  referred  to  as  officers.     See  p.  loi  for  data  on  organization. 


BOUNDARIES  163 

Art.  3.  The  subordinate  force  is  recruited  according  to 
state  regulations.  Natives  who  have  served  in  the  French 
Army  or  Civil  Service,  and  the  sons  of  the  native  employees, 
can  be  admitted  as  native  forest  guards  when  twenty-two 
years  of  age  if  they  can  show  a  knowledge  of  the  French  language; 
they  will  be  nominated  by  the  Governor  General  of  Algeria. 

Art.  4.  An  appointment  in  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service  * 
is  inconsistent  with  any  other,  either  administrative  or  legal. 

Art.  5.  The  officers  and  employees  of  the  Waters  and 
Forests  Service  can  only  enter  into  office  after  having  taken 
oath  before  their  home  district  court,  and  after  having  had 
their  commission  and  the  certificate  of  their  oath  registered 
at  the  record  office  of  the  district  court,  under  whose  juris- 
diction they  will  exercise  their  duties. 

In  the  event  of  a  change  of  residence,  which  will  place  them 
under  another  jurisdiction  of  the  same  standing,  another  oath 
need  not  be  taken. 

Art.  6.  The  imprints  on  the  marking  hatchets,  or  instru- 
ments employed  in  marking  trees,  etc.,  used  by  the  Waters 
and  Forests  officers  and  employees  shall  be  registered  at  the 
record  office  as  follows: 

Marks  of  marking  hatchets  or  those  with  which  officers  and 
employees  are  provided:  at  the  record  office  of  the  district 
court  under  whose  jurisdiction  they  will  exercise  their  duties. 

Those  of  the  standard  national  marking  hatchet:  at  the 
record  office  of  the  district  court,  and  at  the  court  of  appeals. 

Part  III.  —  State  Forests 

SECTION   I.  —  boundaries 

Art.  7.  In  territories  whose  ownership  has  been  proved  or 
settled  by  the  appUcation  of  the  law  of  July  26,  1873,  ^^  that 
of  April  28,  1887,  or  that  of  Feb.  16,  1897,  the  general  or  partial 

^  In  this  code  the  Algerian  Waters  and  Forests  Service  is  variously  referred 
to  as:  radministration  des  Eaux  et  Forets  .  .  .  Service  des  eaux  et  forets 
...  so  these  terms  have  been  rendered:  Waters  and  Forests  Service,  since 
official  publications  always  use  the  title  "  Service  des  Eaux  et  Forets." 


l64  THE   ALGERIAN   FOREST  CODE 

settlement  of  boundaries  will  be  effected  in  accordance  with 
the  provisions  in  the  following  articles. 

Art.  8.  The  separation  of  the  State  woods  and  forests,  and 
bordering  properties  can  be  requested  either  by  the  Woods  and 
Forests  Service  or  by  the  border  owners. 

Art.  9.  The  separation  act  shall  be  commenced,  either  by  the 
State  or  by  the  border  owners,  according  to  the  usual  methods. 

Nevertheless  it  shall  be  suspended,  while  decisions  upon  par- 
tial or  lesser  actions  are  given,  if  the  Service  binds  itself  to  give 
a  decision  within  a  period  of  six  months,  in  proceeding  with  the 
general  delimitation  of  the  forest. 

Art.  10.  When  the  general  boundaries  of  a  State  forest  are 
to  be  estabHshed,  this  delimitation  shall  be  announced  two 
months  in  advance  by  an  order  of  the  prefect.  This  order 
shall  be  posted  and  published  in  the  neighbouring  communes, 
and  posted  at  the  domiciles  of  owners  of  border  property,  or 
at  those  of  their  farmers,  guards,  or  agents. 

After  this  lapse  of  time,  the  officers  of  the  Waters  and  Forests 
Service  will  proceed  with  the  boundary  work,  whether  border- 
ing owners  are  present  or  not. 

Art.  II.  The  report  of  the  boundary  work  shall  immedi- 
ately be  filed  at  the  secretary's  office  of  the  prefecture,  and 
an  abstract  at  the  office  of  the  secretary  of  the  sub-prefect, 
which  is  connected  with  each  division.  Notice  shall  be  given 
by  an  order  of  the  prefect,  pubUshed  and  posted  in  the  neigh- 
bouring communes.  Interested  parties  can  thus  take  note  and 
enter  their  protests  within  a  year  from  the  day  on  which  the 
order  shall  have  been  pubhshed. 

The  Governor  General  shall  declare  whether  he  approves, 
or  if  he  refuses  to  confirm  this  report  in  whole  or  in  part.  His 
declaration  shall  be  made  pubHc  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
report. 

Art.  12.  If,  after  these  lapses  of  time,  no  protests  have 
been  raised  by  the  bordering  owners  against  the  boundary 
report,  and  if  the  Governor  General  has  not  signified  his  re- 
fusal to  confirm  it,  the  dehmitation  shall  be  final.  The  officers 
of  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service  shall  proceed  in  the  pre- 


MANAGEMENT  1 65 

ceding  months  to  mark  the  boundaries  in  the  presence  of  the 
interested  parties,  who  shall  be  duly  summoned  by  an  order 
of  the  prefect,  as  is  prescribed  in  Art.  10. 

Art.  13.  In  case  of  disputes  arising,  either  during  the  de- 
limitation or  in  consequence  of  objections  raised  by  bordering 
owners,  in  pursuance  of  Art.  11,  they  shall  be  brought  by  the 
interested  parties  into  competent  courts,  and  the  delimitation 
shall  be  suspended  until  after  their  decision. 

Owners  of  border  property  shall  have  recourse  to  the  courts 
if,  in  the  case  provided  for  under  Art.  12,  the  Waters  and  Forests 
officers  refuse  to  carry  out  the  boundary  marking. 

Art.  14.  When  the  separation  or  settlement  of  the  bound- 
aries shall  be  affected  by  simply  setting  corners,  the  expenses 
shall  be  shared  equally.  When  it  shall  be  effected  by  planting 
hedges,  these  shall  be  carried  out  at  the  expense  of  the  peti- 
tioner, and  made  entirely  on  his  land. 

Art.  15.  In  territories  whose  ownership  has  not  yet  been 
settled  or  established,  the  notices  which  the  department  has 
to  make  to  the  border  owners,  their  farmers,  guards  and  agents, 
will  be  replaced  by  a  general  pubhcation  by  means  of  the 
public  crier  in  the  villages  and  markets,  and  by  official  notifi- 
cations, addressed  at  least  a  fortnight  in  advance  to  the  mayor 
of  the  commune,  and  to  the  native  assistant  of  the  donar, 
president  of  the  djemae.^ 

In  this  case  the  expense  of  the  boundary  marking  shall  be 
divided  equally  between  the  owner  of  the  forest  and  the  petitioner 
or  defendant. 

section  n.  —  management 

Art.  16.  All  the  woods  and  forests  of  the  State  domain  are 
subject  to  forest  management  regulated  by  decree. 

Art.  17.  No  extraordinary  felling  whatsoever  shall  be  made 
in  the  State  woods,  nor  any  felling  in  the  reserved  fourth,  or 
of  stands  reserved  by  the  management  for  growth  to  high  forest, 
without  a  special  decree,  under  penalty  of  the  sales  being  de- 

^  "Temporary  village  constructed  by  Arab  shepherds"  or  "fraction  of  a  tribe 
in  Algeria." 


1 66  THE  ALGERIAN   FOREST  CODE 

clared  null  and  void,  except  in  the  case  of  an  appeal  from  the 
purchaser,  if  it  takes  place,  against  the  officials  or  officers  who 
shall  have  ordered  or  authorized  such  fellings. 

This  special  decree  shall  be  inserted  in  the  law-notices. 

SECTION   rn.  —  AUCTIONS    OF   BARK,   FELLING  AREAS,    AND 
SALES    BY   AGREEMENT 

Art.  1 8.  No  ordinary  or  extraordinary  sale  shall  take  place 
in  the  State  woods,  except  by  public  auction,  announced  at 
least  fifteen  days  in  advance,  by  notices  affixed  in  the  principal 
towns  of  the  department,  in  the  commune  where  the  woods 
are  situated,  in  the  neighbouring  communes,  and  in  the  place 
where  the  auction  is  held. 

The  Waters  and  Forests  Service  shall  be  authorized  by  special 
decree  of  the  Governor  General  of  Algeria,  to  make  at  one  and 
the  same  auction,  the  sale  of  several  felling  areas  of  the  same 
cutting  series,  on  condition  that  the  periods  for  felKng  and  for 
payment  shall  not  exceed  five  years. 

At  the  completion  of  the  operations,  all  the  road  and  canal 
making  and  all  the  bridges  or  tunnels  built  for  transport  or 
for  felHng  purposes  shall  become  the  property  of  the  State 
without  any  indemnity  whatever. 

Art.  19.  Sales  by  mutual  agreement  can  always  be  author- 
ized in  the  following  cases: 

1.  If  there  is  an  appeal  of  urgency  on  account  of  acci- 

dental or  unforeseen  needs. 

2.  When  forest  products  could  not  or  cannot  be  sold  by 

means  of  public  auction. 

Art.  20.  Any  sale,  concluded  otherwise  than  by  pubHc 
auction  outside  of  the  cases  provided  for  in  the  preceding  article, 
shall  be  considered  as  a  secret  sale  and  declared  null  and  void. 

Art.  21.  Any  sale,  although  transacted  by  pubhc  auction, 
shall  be  declared  null  and  void  in  the  same  way,  if  it  has  not 
been  preceded  by  pubHc  notices  as  prescribed  under  Art.  18, 
or  if  it  has  been  made  in  other  places,  or  on  another  day  than 
those  which  shall  have  been  indicated  on  the  notices  already 
published,  or  on  the  notices  of  withdrawal. 


AUCTIONS  OF  BARK,  ETC.  167 

Art.  22.  Any  disputes  which  may  arise  during  auctions 
either  as  to  their  validity,  or  as  to  the  solvency  of  those  making 
bids  or  giving  securities,  shall  be  decided  immediately  by  the 
official  presiding  at  the  auction. 

Art.  23.  The  following  are  not  allowed  to  take  part  in  sales, 
either  personally,  or  by  persons  acting  for  them  directly  or 
indirectly,  either  as  principal  bidder,  or  as  a  partner  or  surety: 

1.  Officers  and  employees  of  the  Waters  and  Forests  Serv- 

ice throughout  the  RepubHc,  the  officials  charged 
with  presiding  or  taking  part  in  the  sales,  and  the 
collectors  of  the  felled  products  throughout  the  terri- 
tory where  they  exercise  their  functions.  In  case  of 
conviction  of  an  offence  they  shall  be  punished  by 
a  fine  which  shall  not  exceed  a  quarter  or  be  less 
than  a  twelfth  of  the  total  amount  obtained  by  the 
auction,  and  they  shall  be  liable  to  imprisonment 
and  the  prohibition  contained  in  Art.  175  of  the 
Penal  Code. 

2.  The  relations  and  connections  in  direct  Hne,  the  brothers, 

brothers-in-law,  uncles,  and  nephews  of  the  officers 
and  employees  of  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service 
throughout  the  territory  for  which  officers  and  em- 
ployees are  commissioned. 

In  case  of  infraction  of  rules  and  regulations  they  shall  be 
subject  to  a  fine  equal  to  that  laid  down  in  the  preceding 
paragraph. 

3.  The  counsellors  of  the  tribunal,  the  judges,  the  officers 

of  public  departments  and  recorders  of  district  courts 
in  the  entire  area  (arrondissement)  in  their  jurisdiction. 

In  case  of  conviction,  they  shall  be  liable  to  all  damages 
should  any  occur. 

Any  auction  that  shall  be  made  contrary  to  the  provisions 
of  this  article  shall  be  declared  null  and  void. 

Art.  24.  Any  secret  association  or  negotiation  between 
dealers  in  wood,  cork,  or  other  forest  products,  tending  to 
lower  or  disturb  the  biddings,  or  to  obtain  the  products  at 
a  lower  price,  will  lead  to  the  apphcation  of  the  penalties  cited 
under  Art.  412  of  the  Penal  Code,  in  addition  to  all  damages, 


l68  THE   ALGERIAN   FOREST  CODE 

and  if  the  auction  has  resulted  in  favour  of  the  secret  asso- 
ciation, or  the  parties  to  the  aforesaid  negotiation,  it  shall  be 
declared  null  and  void. 

The  cases  provided  against  to  be  declared  null  and  void 
under  Arts.  20,  21,  and  23  form  part  of  the  regulations  for 
public  safety  as  well  as  those  set  forth  under  the  present  article. 

Art.  25.  No  verdict  or  ruling  shall  be  admitted  unless  it 
is  made  immediately  after  the  auction,  before  those  assembled 
are  dispersed. 

Art.  26.  In  case  of  the  purchaser  failing  to  give  bail  or 
the  securities  required  by  the  specifications  within  the  pre- 
scribed time  it  shall  be  declared  forfeit  by  order  of  the  prefect, 
and  a  new  auction  of  the  felled  timber  shall  in  consequence  be 
proceeded  with,  in  the  manner  prescribed  above. 

The  original  purchaser  shall  be  held  responsible  for  the  dif- 
ference between  his  price,  and  that  of  the  re-sale,  if  there  is  any. 

Art.  27.  Every  bid  shall  be  considered  final  the  moment 
it  has  been  uttered;    under  no  circumstances  can  it  be  outbid. 

Art.  28.  The  auctions  of  the  cutting  areas  shall  be  trans- 
acted in  accordance  with  the  regulations  in  force  in  the  State, 
save  only  in  respect  of  an  order  from  the  Paymaster  General 
of  the  Treasury. 

Art.  29.  At  the  time  of  the  sale  by  auction  purchasers  are 
expected  to  take  up  their  residence  in  the  place  where  the  sale 
shall  be  held;  in  default  of  which,  all  subsequent  proceedings 
will  be  communicated  to  them  in  due  form  by  the  secretary 
of  the  prefecture  or  sub-prefecture,  according  to  the  "arron- 
dissement"  in  which  the  auction  shall  have  taken  place. 

Art.  30.  Every  action  against  a  purchaser  conveys  the  right 
of  summary  execution  upon  him,  his  associates  and  sureties 
for  the  payment  of  the  initial  purchase  price  of  the  auction  as 
well  as  incidental  expenses. 

Art.  31.  All  purchasers  of  felled  timber  and  forest  products, 
and  the  beneficiaries  of  sales  by  agreement,  above  200  francs 
in  value,  shall  furnish  security  either  in  cash  or  in  transferable 
securities  guaranteed  by  the  State  or  by  the  Colony,  which  shall 
be  fixed  by  the  specifications  or  by  agreement. 


EXPLOITATION  1 69 

Nevertheless  the  aforesaid  securities  may  be  dispensed  with 
if  they  present  other  securities  recognized  as  solvent. 

Art.  32.  The  sureties  are  liable  jointly  and  severally  and 
in  the  same  manner,  for  the  payment  of  damages,  refunds,  and 
fines  that  the  purchaser  may  have  incurred. 

SECTION   IV.  —  EXPLOITATION 

Art.  33.  After  the  auction  or  the  approval  of  the  sale  by 
agreement  no  change  can  be  made  in  the  location  of  the  felling 
area,  and  no  tree  or  portion  of  a  tree  shall  be  added  thereto 
under  any  pretext  whatever  under  penalty  to  the  purchaser 
or  beneficiary  of  the  sale,  of  a  fine  equal  to  three  times  the 
value  of  the  wood  not  comprised  in  the  auction  or  sale,  without 
renouncing  the  claims  on  the  restitution  of  the  wood,  or  of 
its  value. 

The  provisions  are  applicable  to  cork  and  to  tan-bark.  The 
officers  of  the  Waters  and  Forests  who  shall  have  permitted  or 
tolerated  such  additions  or  changes  shall  be  fined  in  the  same 
manner,  and  shall  be  liable  to  prosecution  and  penalties  for 
malpractice  and  speculation,  if  there  has  been  any. 

Art.  34.  The  purchasers  by  auction  ^  or  by  agreement  shall 
not  commence  logging  or  felling  areas  or  removal  before  obtain- 
ing a  written  permit  to  fell  from  the  local  officer  of  Waters  and 
Forests,  under  penalty  of  prosecution  for  trespass. 

Art.  35.  The  purchaser  by  auction  or  by  agreement  may 
have  an  agent  or  sales-guard,  who  shall  be  approved  of  by  the 
inspector  or  agent  of  Waters  and  Forests  holding  the  office  of 
"Chief  of  Service,"  and  shall  be  sworn  before  the  justice  of 
the  peace. 

If  the  felling  area  or  areas  that  the  sales-guard  is  charged 
to  watch  are  situated  in  the  districts  of  several  justices  of  the 
peace,  the  oath  dehvered  before  one  of  them  shall  be  registered 
at  the  record-office  of  the  other  justices  of  the  peace. 

This  sales-guard  can  draw  up  reports  in  regard  to  the  sale 
and  within  a  hundred-metre  zone  around  it. 

6  Literally:   "The  highest  bidders  or  beneficiaries  of  sales  by  agreement." 


lyo  THE   ALGERIAN   FOREST  CODE 

These  reports  shall  be  subject  to  the  same  formalities  as 
those  of  the  employees  of  Waters  and  Forests,  and  shall  be 
received  in  evidence  until  contrary  proof  is  forthcoming. 

Art.  36.  The  purchaser  by  auction  or  by  agreement,  if  this 
provision  is  included  in  his  contract,  shall  be  bound  to  deposit 
with  the  local  Waters  and  Forests  officer  and  at  the  record 
office  of  the  court  of  the  arrondissement,  under  penalty  of  a 
fine  of  not  less  than  25  francs  ($4.82),  and  not  more  than  100 
francs  ($19.30),  the  mark  of  the  hammer,  blaze,  stamps,  or 
other  instrument  to  be  used  to  mark  the  trees,  wood,  cork,  or 
bark  of  his  purchase.  The  purchaser  by  auction  and  his  asso- 
ciates can  only  have  one  mark  for  one  purchase,  nor  shall  they 
mark  with  it  products  other  than  those  purchased  at  the  said 
sale,  under  penalty  of  a  fine  of  100  to  500  francs  ($19.30  to 

$96-5o)- 

Art.  37.  The  purchaser  by  auction  or  by  agreement  shall  be 
bound  to  preserve  all  the  trees  marked  or  designated  as  reserved, 
the  number  of  which  shall  be  indicated  in  the  marking  record, 
without  their  being  permitted  to  exchange  these  for  other  trees 
which  they  might  have  left  standing. 

Art.  38.  The  fines  incurred  by  the  purchasers  by  auction 
or  by  agreement,  in  virtue  of  the  preceding  article,  for  fell- 
ing or  removing  reserved  trees  shall  be  from  2  to  200  francs 
($0,386  to  $38.60)  each,  without  renouncing  claims  for  (civil) 
damages. 

The  restitution  shall  be  effected  in  kind,  if  the  adequate 
(marked)  trees  can  be  given,  and  the  Waters  and  Forests  Ser\dce 
require  it. 

If  it  is  a  question  of  trees  having  a  circumference  of  less  than 
2  decimetres  (8  inches),  the  fine  shall  be  from  o  franc  10  cen- 
times ($0.0193)  to  2  francs  ($0,386)  each  whatever  the  dimen- 
sions may  be. 

Art.  39.  The  purchasers  by  auction  or  by  agreement  shall 
not  fell,  or  remove  any  wood,  bark,  or  cork,  before  sunrise  or 
after  sunset  unless  they  have  obtained  a  special  permit  from 
the  Forest  Service  under  penalty  of  a  fine  of  not  less  than  20 
($3.86)  or  more  than  100  francs  ($19.30). 


EXPLOITATION  171 

Art.  40.  Unless  the  report  of  the  auction  or  sale  by  agree- 
ment contains  an  express  authorization  to  the  contrary,  they 
are  forbidden  to  peel  or  bark  standing  any  of  the  trees  pur- 
chased, under  penalty  of  a  fine  of  50  to  500  francs  ($9.65  to 
$96.50).  The  bark  and  the  wood  that  has  been  peeled,  shall 
be  seized  as  security  for  damages,  the  amount  of  which  shall 
not  be  less  than  the  value  of  the  trees  peeled  or  barked  in 
trespass. 

Art.  41.  The  purchasers  by  auction  or  by  agreement  shall 
be  obliged  to  conform  exactly  to  the  terms  of  their  contract  or 
of  their  agreement,  not  only  as  regards  the  method  of  felling 
the  trees,  the  peehng  of  cork  or  bark,  and  the  cleaning  of  the 
felling  areas,  but  also  for  the  time  during  which  the  felling  of 
the  wood  and  the  clearing  of  the  ground,  or  removal  of  the 
cork  or  bark,  shall  be  effected. 

In  default  of  their  fulfilhng  these  conditions  they  will  be 
Hable  to  a  fine  of  50  to  500  francs  ($9.65  to  $96.50)  and  to  the 
damages  assessed  at  a  minimum  of  10  per  cent  of  the  value  of 
the  products.  The  aforesaid  products  can  be  seized  up  to  the 
amount  due  as  guarantee  of  the  fine  and  the  damages  incurred. 

In  case  of  failure  to  cut  or  remove  within  the  time  fixed  by 
the  regulations  for  the  auction  or  sale  by  agreement,  or  the 
extension  of  time  allowed  by  the  conservators,  the  court  at  the 
request  of  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service  shall  confiscate  the 
timber  still  standing,  or  felled,  which  shall  remain  the  property 
of  the  State. 

Art.  42.  In  case  the  purchasers  by  auction  or  by  agree- 
ment fail  to  carry  out  within  the  stated  time,  and  according 
to  the  manner  prescribed  by  the  regulations,  the  work  therein 
enumerated  (designed)  to  bring  the  cork  oak  into  full  bearing 
or  protect  the  stands  from  fire,  to  remove  and, cord  the  branches 
trimmed,  to  clear  the  felhng  areas  of  briars,  brambles,  and 
weed  growth,  to  repair  the  logging  roads,  ditches,  or  fences, 
this  work  shall  be  executed  at  their  expense,  at  the  convenience 
of  the  Waters  and  Forests  officers  by  authorization  of  the  pre- 
fect who  shall  thereupon  approve  the  expense  accounts,  and 
render  a  writ  of  execution  for  payment  against  the  purchasers. 


172  THE   ALGERIAN    FOREST  CODE 

Art.  43.  The  Waters  and  Forests  officers,  or  employees  to 
whom  they  delegate  these  duties,  shall  inform  the  purchasers 
by  auction  or  by  agreement,  in  writing,  the  places  where  pits, 
kilns,  or  temporary  and  moveable  furnaces  can  be  established 
for  the  use  of  the  products  of  the  felling  area,  as  well  as  sites 
for  camps  and  workshops.  They  shall  not  be  placed  elsewhere, 
under  penalty  of  a  fine  of  10  to  50  francs  ($1.93  to  $9.65)  for 
each  pit,  kiln  or  furnace,  camp  or  workliouse,  constructed 
contrary  to  these  provisions. 

Art.  44.  The  transport  of  the  products  shall  be  made  on 
the  roads  indicated  in  the  specifications,  or  on  those  authorized 
during  the  felling,  and  those  who  make  new  roads  shall  be  liable 
to  a  penalty  of  20  to  100  francs  ($3.86  to  $19.30),  in  addition 
to  damages  if  any  are  incurred. 

Art.  45.  All  purchasers  by  auction  or  by  agreement,  their 
agents  and  workmen,  are  forbidden  to  light  fires  elsewhere  than 
in  their  dwelHngs  or  workshops,  under  penalty  of  a  fine  of  10 
to  100  francs  ($1.93  to  $19.30),  without  prejudice  to  the  claims 
for  damages  resulting  from  the  offence. 

Art.  46.  The  purchasers  by  auction  or  by  agreement  shall 
not  place  on  their  sales  areas  products  similar  to  those  upon 
which  the  contest  is  based,  under  penalty  of  a  line  of  50  to 
500  francs  ($9.65  to  $96.50). 

Art.  47,  If  in  the  course  of  the  felling  or  clearing,  reports 
are  drawn  up  with  regard  to  trespass  or  felling  violations,  these 
may  be  acted  on  without  waiting  for  the  official  check  of  the 
sales  area.  Nevertheless,  in  the  case  of  insufficiency  of  any  first 
report  upon  which  no  sentence  has  been  pronounced,  the  Waters 
and  Forests  officers  shall  be  able  at  the  time  of  the  check  of  the 
sale  area  to  take  up,  in  a  fresh  report,  trespasses  and  violations. 

Art.  48.  The  purchasers  by  auction  or  by  agreement  shall 
be  responsible  from  the  date  of  their  permit  to  fell,  until  they 
are  definitely  exempt,  for  all  offences  against  the  Forest  Code 
committed  within  their  felling  area  and  in  a  zone  100  metres 
(109  yards)  in  breadth  beyond  it,  if  their  agents  or  sales-guards 
do  not  report  such  offences  within  five  days  to  the  Waters  and 
Forests  officer. 


CHECK  OF  CUTTING  AREA  173 

They  are  equally  responsible  and  personally  liable  for  the 
payment  of  fines,  and  for  making  restitution  in  cases  of  mis- 
demeanour or  offences  committed  under  the  same  conditions 
of  time  and  place,  by  their  agents,  sales-guards,  workmen, 
woodcutters,  teamsters,  and  any  other  employees  whatever. 


SECTION   V.  —  CHECK  '    OF   CUTTING   AREA 

Art.  49.  The  check  of  each  sale  area  shall  be  undertaken 
within  six  months  immediately  after  the  day  upon  which  the 
period  allowed  for  the  clearing  up  of  the  felling  areas  has  ex- 
pired. After  the  lapse  of  these  six  months,  the  purchaser  by 
auction  or  by  agreement  shall  be  free  of  any  charges  for  the 
felling  of  timber  if  the  administration  has  not  carried  out  the 
check. 

However,  any  person  who  shall  have  terminated  the  felling 
and  clearing  of  his  lot,  before  the  expiration  of  the  time  agreed 
upon,  shall  be  able  to  summon  the  Service  to  proceed  with  the 
check  by  a  special  judicial  notice  to  the  local  Waters  and 
Forests  officer  and  may  be  discharged,  if  there  have  been  no 
proceedings  against  him  within  the  period  of  six  months  to 
date  from  the  day  of  the  notification. 

Art.  50.  The  purchaser  by  auction  or  by  agreement,  or 
assignee,  shall  be  bound  to  assist  at  the  check;  for  this  purpose 
he  shall  be  notified  in  writing  a  fortnight  in  advance,  the  day 
fixed  for  the  verification  being  stated. 

In  case  of  his  failing  to  present  himself,  or  to  delegate  a  rep- 
resentative, the  report  shall  be  considered  as  having  been  drawn 
up  in  the  presence  of  both  parties. 

Art.  51.  After  the  lapse  of  a  month  from  the  termination 
of  the  work,  the  Service  and  the  purchaser  by  auction  or  by 
agreement  may  require  the  annulment  of  the  report,  in  case  of 
irregularity  or  false  statement. 

For  this  purpose  they  shall  present  themselves  before  the 
council  of  the  prefecture,  who  shall  judge  the  case. 

^  Literally  the  translation  of  " recolements "  is  "verifications,"  but  the  word 
"  check  "  is  more  generally  used  in  the  United  States. 


174  THE   ALGERIAN   FOREST  CODE 

Art.  52.  In  case  of  the  annulling  of  the  report  the  Service 
shall  be  able  in  the  following  month  to  rectify  the  mistakes  by 
means  of  a  fresh  report.  At  the  expiration  of  the  time  allowed 
under  Art.  51,  and  if  the  Service  has  raised  no  opposition,  the 
purchaser  by  auction  shall  be  free  of  the  charges  of  the  felling 
of  timber. 


SECTION   VI.  —  AUCTIONS   AND   RENTALS    OF   GRAZING,  MAST,  MIS- 
CELLANEOUS  FOREST   PRODUCTS,  AND   AGRICULTURAL   LAND 

Art.  53.  In  State  forests,  declared  exempt  and  free  from 
rights  for  wood,  mast  or  hog  grazing  and  pasturage  ^  can  be 
put  up  to  auction  for  a  maximum  period  of  three  years. 

The  formalities  prescribed  under  Section  III  of  the  present 
Part  for  the  sale  of  wood  felling  areas  shall  be  observed  at  those 
auctions. 

Before  proceeding  with  the  public  auction,  the  cession  of 
grazing  rights  by  means  of  a  sale  by  mutual  agreement  shall 
be  ofifered  to  the  neighbouring  communities.  In  case  of  a  re- 
fusal of  the  offer  by  these,  the  aforesaid  rights  shall  be  put 
up  to  auction,  starting  with  the  price  previously  put  forward 
for  sale  by  agreement. 

The  Service  is  equally  authorized  to  treat  for  a  sale  by  agree- 
ment in  the  case  of  the  failure  of  the  auctions. 

Art.  54.  The  purchasers  by  auction  or  by  agreement  shall 
not  be  allowed  to  bring  into  the  forest  a  larger  number  of  ani- 
mals than  that  which  shall  be  determined  in  the  specifications,^ 
under  pain  of  the  maximum  penalty  established  by  Art.  177. 

Art.  55.  The  purchasers  by  auction  or  by  agreement  shall 
be  bound,  if  it  is  thus  prescribed  in  the  specification,  to  have 
the  animals  they  bring  into  the  forest  marked  with  a  sign  (brand) 
specified  in  the  terms  of  the  sale,  under  the  penalty  of  the  fine 
established  in  Art.  177. 

There  shall  be  no  question  of  trespass,  if  it  has  not  hitherto 
been  possible  to  mark  the  animals  found  in  the  forest,  pro- 

8  The  word  "Parcours"  here  signifies  grazing  by  all  kinds  of  stock. 

9  "Cahier  des  charges  ";   see  p.  177  for  aa  example. 


WOOD   RIGHTS   IN   STATE   FORESTS  1 75 

vided  they  have  been  declared  to  be  at  the  service  of  the  Waters 
and  Forests  Service. 

The  maximum  fine  shall  be  imposed  in  the  case  of  a  repe- 
tition of  the  offence. 

Art.  56.  If  the  animals  are  found  outside  the  leased  dis- 
tricts or  the  prescribed  routes  of  travel,  the  purchaser  by  auction 
or  by  agreement  shall  be  punished  according  to  the  penalties 
prescribed  in  Art.  177.  The  herder  shall  be  besides  condemned 
to  a  fine  of  one  to  5  francs  ($0.19  to  $0.96),  and  in  case  of  a 
repetition  of  the  offence,  to  imprisonment  for  one  to  five  days. 

Art.  57.  Save  in  the  cases  set  forth  in  the  specifications, 
purchasers  by  auction  or  by  agreement  are  forbidden  to  fell 
trees,  or  to  carry  away  acorns,  fruit,  or  seed  from  the  forests, 
under  penalty  of  the  maximum  fine  prescribed  under  Art.  118. 

In  case  of  a  repetition  of  the  offence  they  can  however  be 
sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  three  days  or  more. 

Art.  58.  The  alfa  ^^  and  other  diverse  products  of  the  forest 
shall  be  disposed  of  by  auctions  or  by  sales  by  agreement  subject 
to  the  routine  prescribed  under  Arts.  18  and  19. 

The  provisions  for  carrying  out  the  sales  shall  be  determined 
by  a  decree  of  the  Governor  General. 

Violations  against  these  provisions  shall  be  punished  by  fines 
prescribed  by  this  law. 

Art.  59.  The  Governor  General  of  Algeria,  upon  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  conservators  of  Waters  and  Forests  shall 
have  the  power  to  authorize  the  lease  for  a  maximum  period 
of  eighteen  years,  of  open  land,  blanks,  or  the  cleanings  exist- 
ing in  the  federal  forests. 

This  lease  shall  either  be  put  up  to  public  auction  or  made 
by  means  of  mutual  agreement. 

SECTION   VII.  —  WOOD   RIGHTS   IN   STATE   FORESTS 

Art.  60.  Only  those  shall  be  permitted  to  exercise  any 
right "  whatever  in    the  State  forests  whose  rights  upon  the 

1"  A  native  grass  valuable  for  fodder. 

"  The  term  "droit  d'usage"  is  primarily  the  right  to  gather  wood  in  any  forest, 
but  often  also  includes  the  right  to  pasturage,  etc. 


176  THE   ALGERIAN   FOREST  CODE 

day  of  the  promulgation  of  the  present  law  shall  have  been 
recognized  as  estabhshed  either  by  acts  of  the  government 
or  by  decision  of  the  courts,  or  definite  decrees,  or  shall  be 
recognized  as  such  at  the  moment  of  the  application  of  the 
senatorial  decree,  actually  promised  in  consequence  of  ofificial 
or  judicial  requests,  or  which  should  have  been  promised  subject 
to  the  provisions  of  the  law  of  Feb.  16,  1897,  relating  to  landed 
property  in  Algeria.  Nevertheless  the  rights  which  the  natives 
enjoy  by  virtue  of  tradition  shall  be  maintained  until  the 
application  of  the  senatorial  decree. 

Art.  61.  In  future  no  granting  of  rights  shall  be  made  in 
the  State  forests  of  any  nature  and  under  any  pretext  whatever. 

However,  in  case  of  absolute  necessity,  and  in  the  measure 
laid  down  with  due  regard  for  pre-existing  rights,  a  decree  of 
the  Governor  General,  made  on  the  recommendation  of  the 
government  council,  shall  concede  to  natives  displaced  for  pur- 
pose of  colonization,  rights  in  the  forests  of  their  new  territory 
equivalent  to  those  enjoyed  in  the  first  place. 

Art.  62.  The  rights  by  which  the  State  forests  are  bur- 
dened can  be  wiped  out  by  means  of  working  plan  decrees  or 
redeemed  by  means  of  a  grant  of  land  or  a  money  payment,  if 
the  other  measures  are  inapplicable.  The  working  plan  shall  be 
approved  of  by  decree. 

The  rights  other  than  those  of  pasturage  can  be  besides 
redeemed  by  means  of  "  cantonnement. "  ^- 

The  conditions  of  this  redemption  shall  be  determined  by 
agreement,  and,  in  case  of  disputes,  shall  be  settled  by  the 
courts. 

Art.  63.  The  redemption  of  the  rights  of  pasturage  can 
only  be  claimed  by  the  administration  in  territories  where  the 
exercise  of  those  rights  is  an  absolute  necessity  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  one  or  of  several  communes  or  fractions  of  communes. 

If  this  necessity  is  disputed  by  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service, 
the  parties  shall  present  themselves  before  the  council  of  the 

12  Apparently  there  is  no  equivalent  for  "  cantonnement "  in  English,  but  it 
means  the  act  of  giving  over  to  those  who  have  common  rights,  a  piece  of  forest 
land,  where  they  can  exercise  these  rights. 


WOOD    RIGHTS   IN    STATE    FORESTS  1 77 

prefecture  which  after  an  inquiry  shall  give  judgment,  save  in 
the  case  of  application  to  the  State  council. 

Art.  64.  The  action  for  procuring  a  deed  of  exemption  from 
rights  belongs  only  to  the  government,  and  not  to  those  possess- 
ing rights. 

Art.  65.  In  all  the  State  forests  which  are  not  exempt  by 
means  of  "cantonnement"  or  indemnity  conformable  to  Arts. 
62  and  63  above,  the  exercise  of  rights  can  always  be  reduced  by 
the  Service,  according  to  the  condition  and  yield  of  the  forests 
and  shall  only  take  place  in  conformity  with  the  provisions  set 
forth  in  the  following  articles. 

In  case  of  disputes  arising  as  to  what  the  forests  yield  and 
their  condition,  recourse  shall  be  had  to  the  council  of  the 
prefecture. 

Art.  66.  Whatever  may  be  the  age  or  the  species  of  timber, 
those  enjoying  rights  may  only  exercise  their  rights  of  pasturage 
in  the  cantons  which  shall  have  been  declared  open  by  the 
Waters  and  Forests  Service,  except  in  cases  of  recourse  to  the 
council  of  the  prefecture,  and  this,  notwithstanding  all  adverse 
occupancies. 

Owners  of  cattle  found  outside  the  Hmits  of  the  cantons 
shall  be  punished  according  to  the  penalties  set  forth  in  Art.  177. 

Art.  67.  Every  year,  before  August  i,  the  Waters  and 
Forests  officers  shall  inform  the  mayors  of  the  communes  and 
private  persons,  who  individually  have  rights,  of  the  cantons 
declared  free,  and  the  number  of  cattle  which  shall  be  admitted 
to  the  pasturage. 

The  mayors  shall  be  bound  to  issue  public  notices  of  the 
same  in  the  communes  where  common  rights  are  held,  and, 
before  October  i,  to  draw  up  the  individual  hst  of  the  right 
holders,  with  the  division  amongst  them  of  the  number  of 
animals  allowed. 

The  exercise  of  the  rights  of  pasturage  can  be  only  allowed 
to  those  given  in  this  hst. 

Art.  68.  The  right  holders  in  any  case  can  only  enjoy  the 
rights  of  pasturage  for  their  own  cattle. 

The  herds,  other  than  those  used  for  exploitation,  belonging 


1 78  THE   ALGERIAN    FOREST  CODE 

to  cattle  dealers,  even  if  those  dealers  are  right  holders,  as  well 
as  herds  on  shares,  are  excluded  from  the  benefits  of  rights. 

Art.  69.  The  roads  by  which  cattle  may  go  and  come  from 
pasturage  shall  be  designated  by  the  Waters  and  Forests  officers. 
These  roads  shall  be  considered  as  ha\'ing  at  least  a  width  of 
20  metres  (22  yards). 

If  these  roads  cross  any  coppice,  or  young  growth  of  high 
forest  which  is  not  enclosed,  ditches  or  enclosures  may  be  con- 
structed at  the  joint  expense  of  right  holders  and  the  Service, 
and  in  accordance  with  the  directions  of  the  Waters  and  Forests 
officer,  in  order  to  prevent  the  cattle  from  straying  into  the 
woods. 

Art.  70.  If  the  right  holders  bring  a  greater  number  of 
cattle  into  the  forest  than  the  number  fixed  in  accordance  with 
Art.  67,  for  the  excess  number,  the  penalties  uttered  under 
Art.  177  shall  be  enforced. 

The  maximum  fine  shall  be  enforced  in  the  case  of  herds 
on  shares  or  those  belonging  to  cattle  dealers  being  discovered 
in  portions  of  the  forests  reserved  to  right  holders. 

Art.  71.  All  right  holders  are  forbidden  to  bring  sheep, 
goats,  or  camels  into  the  forests  or  intervening  land  under  pen- 
alty to  the  owners  of  such  stock  of  the  maximum  fine  set  forth 
under  Art.  177,  but  the  right  of  indemnity  is  reserved  to  those 
who  have  a  title,  or  a  possession  which  gives  a  title. 

In  addition  the  herder  can  be  fined  from  i  to  5  francs  ($0.19 
to  $0.96),  and,  in  case  of  a  repetition  of  the  offence,  he  can  be 
imprisoned  for  one  to  five  days. 

The  Governor  General  may,  however,  by  an  order  given  by 
the  Government  Council,  authorize  the  pasturage  of  sheep  in 
certain  forests. 

He  shall  also  be  able,  in  urgent  cases,  to  throw  open  the 
closed  areas  to  the  temporary  use  of  herds. 

Under  exceptional  circumstances  the  introduction  of  the  goats 
of  right  holders  into  the  (fire)  lines  of  State  Forests  can  be 
authorized. 

Art.  72.  The  commoners  who  have  any  sort  of  a  right  to 
free  timber  can  only  take  such  timber  after  permission  has 


EXPROPRIATION  1 79 

been  granted  them  by  the  Waters  and  Forests  officers,  under 
penalty  of  the  fines  carried  by  Part  IX,  for  wood  cut  in  trespass. 

Art.  73.  The  Waters  and  Forests  Service  is  authorized  to 
provide  the  right  holders  with  timber,  either  collectively  and 
on  given  dates  or  individually  and  according  to  circumstances. 

The  method  of  issuing  these  permits  shall  be  determined  by 
an  order  of  the  Governor  General. 

Violations  against  the  provisions  of  this  order  shall  be  punish- 
able by  fines  varying  from  one  to  100  francs  ($0.19  to  $19.30). 

Art.  74.  Right  holders  are  forbidden  to  sell  the  wood  or 
other  products  granted  to  them,  or  to  employ  them  in  any 
manner  other  than  that  for  which  the  rights  have  been  granted 
to  them,  under  penalty  of  a  fine  of  10  to  100  francs  ($1.93  to 

$19-30)  • 

Art.  75.  As  under  Art.  635  of  the  Civil  Code,  the  right 
holders  can  be  made  to  contribute  —  in  proportion  to  their  rights 
—  to  the  upkeep  of  the  forests  in  which  they  enjoy  their  rights. 

Orders  from  the  Governor  General  shall  fix  the  amount  of 
the  contribution,  which  shall  be  payable  by  the  right  holder 
in  his  discretion  either  in  money  or  in  days  work,  and  shall  be 
received  (or  else  collected)  as  a  direct  tax. 

SECTION   VIII.  —  expropriation 

Art.  76.  The  expropriation  of  land  which  must  be  reforested 
or  reclaimed,  shall  be  recognized  as  necessary,  and  shall  be 
declared  a  measure  of  public  utility,  under  the  following^ 
circumstances : 

1.  For  the  maintenance  of  lands  on  mountains  or  slopes. 

2.  For   protecting   the   soil   against   erosion   by   rivers   or 

torrents. 

3.  To  ensure  the  existence  of  springs  and  water  courses. 

4.  To  render  stable  the  coast   dunes    and    those   of    the 

Sahara,  and  for  protection  against  the  erosion  of  the 
sea,  and  drifting  of  sand. 

5.  For  the  defence  of  territory  in  the  frontier  zone  which 

shall    be    determined    by   a   regulation   of    the   civil 
authorities. 

6.  For  the  sake  of  public  health. 

"  Compare  with  the  wording  in  Art.  99. 


l8o  THE   ALGERIAN   FOREST   CODE 

If  the  declaration  of  public  utility  is  pronounced,  the  ex- 
propriation shall  proceed  in  conformity  with  Algerian  legislation. 

Art.  77.  The  expropriation  of  interior  holdings  within  fed- 
eral forests  can  be  declared  of  public  utihty  and  proceeded 
with  as  stated  in  the  preceding  article. 

Art.  78.  When  the  State  forests  are  not  accessible  by  means 
of  the  highroad  or  are  not  sufficiently  accessible  for  felling 
purposes,  a  right-of-way  ^^  across  the  neighbouring  properties 
can  be  demanded,  on  payment  of  an  indemnity  proportionate 
to  the  damage  caused. 

Roads  opened,  or  railroads  established  for  felling  purposes 
in  the  State  Forests,  can  be  declared  of  public  utility  and  the 
expropriation  of  ground  shall  be  pronounced  as  stated  under 
Art.  76.     (See  footnote  19,  p.  187.) 

Art.  106.  The  study  of  the  surroundings  with  a  view  to 
reafforestation  in  view  of  the  provisions  of  x\rt.  76  of  the  present 
law,  and  all  the  formalities  pre\'ious  to  the  declaration  of  public 
utility,  shall  be  effected  by  the  Waters  and  Forests  Ser\'ice 
under  orders  given  to  that  effect  by  the  Governor  General. 

Art.  107.  The  declaration  of  public  utility  shall  be  pro- 
nounced according  to  the  procedure  provided  by  Algerian 
legislation. 

Art.  108.  Owners  whose  property  shall  be  included  within 
a  reafforestation  district  shall  enjoy  their  rights  over  the  same 
until  the  moment  when  these  properties  are  acquired  by  the 
Waters  and  Forests  Service.  Such  acquisitions  can  be  made 
either  by  agreement,  or  by  expropriation,  or  by  means  of  an 
exchange. 

Part  IV.  —  Communal  and  Public  Institution  Forests 

Art.  79.  Submission  to  forest  control,  as  set  forth  under 
Art.  I,  shall  only  be  pronounced  so  far  as  the  woods  of  com- 
munes, public  sections  ^°  of  communes,  or  public  institutions 
are  concerned,  when  these  woods  are  considered  fit  for  regular 
exploitation  by   the   administrative   authority,   on   the   recom- 

"  Or  right  of  eminent  domain. 

^*  "Section"  is  an  electoral  division  under  the  French  Republic. 


COMMUNAL   AND    PUBLIC   INSTITUTION   FORESTS  l8l 

mendations  of  the  Water  and  Forest  Service.  These  recom- 
mendations shall  be  communicated  previously  to  the  municipal 
councils  and  to  the  officers  of  public  institutions,  who  shall  be 
consulted  in  regard  to  them. 

Submission  to  forest  control  shall  be  pronounced  by  decree. 
And  the  same  forms  shall  be  proceeded  with  for  all  the  separate 
parts  of  the  code  and  all  the  woods  concerned. 

Art.  8o.  Ground  even  when  not  covered  with  trees  shall  be 
put  under  forest  control,  if  it  belongs  to  communes  or  public 
establishments,  under  the  conditions  provided  for  under  Art.  76, 
and  if  its  reafforestation  is  recognized  as  being  of  general  profit. 

Art.  81.  Communes  and  public  institutions  cannot  under- 
take any  clearing  in  their  woods  without  special  and  express 
authorization  by  the  Governor  General;  any  persons  who  have 
such  feUings  shall  be  Hable  to  the  penalties  declared  under 
Part  VI  against  private  individuals  for  offences  of  a  similar 
nature. 

Art.  82.  Properties  in  the  communal  woods  can  never  be 
divided  up  amongst  the  inhabitants. 

But  when  one,  or  several  communes,  or  sections  of  communes, 
possess  jointly  a  wood,  each  one  of  these  holds  the  right  to 
demand  a  subdivision. 

Art.  83.  Communal  woods,  or  the  woods  of  pubUc  institutions 
are  inspected  and  governed  by  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service. 

In  order  to  indemnify  the  State  for  the  costs  of  adminis- 
tration and  inspection  a  sum  of  10  centimes  ($0.02)  per  franc 
($0.19)  shall  be  paid  for  the  benefit  of  the  Treasury  (in  addition 
to  the  total  sum)  on  the  sale  or  transfer  of  all  forest  products 
either  principal  or  accessory. 

Art.  84.  The  ordinary,  as  well  as  the  extraordinary  sales 
of  felHng  areas  shall  be  proceeded  with  by  the  Waters  and 
Forests  officers,  in  the  same  manner  as  for  State  woods. 

The  sale  by  auction  comprising  several  successive  felling  areas 
and  the  transfer  by  mutual  agreement  can  only  be  effected  with 
the  assent  of  the  municipal  council  or  of  the  officers  of  pubUc 
institutions. 

The  auction  can  only  take  place  in  the  presence  (the  hereafter 


1 82  THE   ALGERIAN   FOREST  CODE 

mentioned  people  ha\dng  been  duly  summoned)  of  the  mayor, 
or  of  a  deputy  for  the  woods  of  the  communes,  or  of  one  of  the 
ofhcials  of  the  pubhc  institutions. 

Any  sale  or  cutting  made  contrary  to  the  injunctions  of  the 
present  article  shall  render  the  person  giving  or  consenting  to 
such  an  order  Hable  to  a  fine  of  loo  to  looo  francs  ($19.30  to 
$193.00)  without  prejudicing  claims  for  damages.  Sales  thus 
effected  shall  be  declared  null  and  void. 

Art.  85.  The  invalidation  and  prohibition  provided  under 
Article  23  for  the  sales  of  wood  which  the  department  has  con- 
fided to  them  shall  be  appHcable  to  mayors,  deputies,  or  col- 
lectors of  the  communes  as  well  as  to  officers  and  collectors  of 
pubhc  institutions. 

In  case  of  offence  they  shall  be  liable  to  the  penalties  pre- 
scribed under  the  aforesaid  article,  and  the  sales  shall  be  declared 
null  and  void. 

Art.  86.  The  felling  areas  of  communal  woods  designed  to 
be  exploited  by  the  residents  or  divided  in  kind  between  them, 
and  the  feUing  of  other  forest  products,  can  only  take  place  after 
the  permit  has  been  granted  previously  by  the  Waters  and 
Forests  officers  under  conditions  set  forth  by  orders  from  the 
Governor  General,  given  in  conformity  with  Art.  73,  all  of 
which  shall  be  under  penalty  of  being  considered  a  trespass, 
if  not  conformed  with. 

Art.  87.  The  acts  relating  to  felUng  areas  and  permits  for 
standing  trees  in  accordance  to  the  conditions  of  the  preceding 
article  shall  be  endorsed,  stamped,  and  registered  on  the  debit 
side  of  the  account  and  duty  shall  only  be  collected  on  them 
in  case  of  judicial  action. 

Art.  88.  If  there  is  no  contrary  claim,  the  di\ision  of  the 
fuel  right  whether  for  fuel  or  for  building  purposes  shall  be 
made  in  one  of  the  three  following  ways: 

1.  Either  by  hearth,  that  is  to  say  by  the  head  of  a  family 

or  of  a  household,  being  truly  and  regularly  domi- 
ciled in  the  commune  before  the  pubKcation  of  the  hst. 

2.  Or  half  by  the  head  of  a  family,  and  half  per  head  of 

the  population  under  the  same  conditions  of  residence. 


COMMUNAL  AND   PUBLIC   INSTITUTION   FORESTS  183 

In  the  two  preceding  cases,  only  an  individual  really  in  actual 
charge  and  care  of  a  family  or  possessing  a  district  household 
in  the  place  where  he  lives  or  takes  his  food  shall  be  considered 
as  the  head  of  a  family  or  household. 

3.    Or  by  inhabitant,  being  truly  and  regularly  domiciled 
in  the  commune  before  the  publication  of  the  Hst. 

Every  year,  at  the  May  session,  the  municipal  council  or 
the  municipal  commission  shall  determine  which  of  these 
methods  of  allotment  shall  be  appHed. 

They  shall  also  decide  on  the  sale  of  the  fuel  rights,  in  whole 
or  in  part,  for  the  benefit  of  the  communal  treasury. 

In  this  last  case  the  sale  shall  be  made  by  pubhc  auction, 
under  the  direction  of  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service. 

Any  other  methods  of  allotment  are  (hereby)  abolished. 
Foreigners  who  fulfill  the  requirements  mentioned  above  can 
only  share  in  the  allotment  after  having  been  authorized  to 
establish  their  domicile  there,  in  conformity  with  the  laws  and 
regulations  appUcable  to  Algeria. 

Art.  89.  The  inhabitants  of  communes  and  the  officials  or 
employees  in  public  institutions  cannot  introduce,  or  cause  to 
be  introduced  into  the  woods  belonging  to  these  communes 
or  public  institutions,  sheep,  goats,  or  camels  under  the  penalties 
set  forth  in  Art.  177. 

Art.  90.  The  means  afforded  to  the  government  to  free 
the  State  forests  from  all  rights  under  Art.  62,  to  expropriate 
the  interior  holdings  under  Art.  77,  and  to  expropriate  ground 
necessary  for  the  purpose  of  constructing  roads  for  felling  pur- 
poses under  Art.  78,  are  applicable,  under  the  same  conditions, 
to  communes  and  public  institutions  for  the  woods  which  they 
own. 

Art.  91.  All  the  provisions  (with  the  exception  of  Art.  74) 
contained  in  Part  III,  Section  VII,  upon  the  exercise  of  rights 
in  State  woods,  are  applicable  to  communes  and  public  insti- 
tutions for  use  in  their  own  woods,  as  well  as  to  the  rights  with 
which  they  may  be  burdened,  except  as  modified  in  the  present 
part  (of  the  law). 


1 84  THE   ALGERIAN   FOREST  CODE 

Part  V.  —  Joint  Tenancy  Forests  ^^ 

Art.  92.  All  the  provisions  of  the  present  law,  relating  to 
the  preservation,  and  to  the  administration  of  the  woods  which 
form  part  of  the  State  domain,  as  well  as  the  prosecution  of 
crimes  and  offences  committed  in  the  woods,  are  apphcable  to 
the  woods  in  joint  tenancy  mentioned  under  Art.  i  of  the  present 
law,  save  for  the  modifications  given  in  Part  IV,  for  woods  of 
communes  and  public  institutions. 

Art.  93.  No  felling  area,  ordinary  or  extraordinary,  no  ex- 
ploitation or  sale,  can  be  made  by  joint  owners  under  penalty 
of  a  fine  equal  to  the  total  value  of  the  wood  so  felled  or  sold; 
all  sales  thus  effected  shall  be  declared  null  and  void. 

Art.  94.  The  costs  of  establishing  boundaries,  surveying, 
and  patrol  shall  be  borne  by  the  State  and  the  joint  owners, 
each  in  proportion  to  their  interests. 

The  Waters  and  Forests  Service  shall  nominate  the  guards, 
regulate  their  salaries,  and  shall  have  sole  right  to  dismiss  them. 

Art.  95.  In  case  of  refunds  and  awards  for  damages  the 
joint  owners  shall  receive  the  proper  amount  each  in  proportion 
to  their  interests,  as  in  the  case  of  sales  returns. 

Art.  96.  The  provisions  set  forth  under  Arts.  92  and  93  are 
applicable  to  woods  in  Htigation  mentioned  under  Art.  i. 

The  proceeds  arising  from  sales,  refunds,  or  (civil)  damages 
shall  be  paid  into  the  treasury  ^^  for  remittance  to  the  owners, 
after  final  judgment,  prorated  in  accordance  with  their  recog- 
nized interests,  after  deducting  the  expenses  of  patrol  and  office 
administration,  unless  disputes  arise  or  claims  are  made  for 
indemnity  or  damages  on  the  ground  that  the  administration 
records  (are  incorrect). 

Part  VI.  —  Private  Forests,  Reforestation  Areas, 
AND  Clearings 
Art.  97.   Private  individuals  exercise  all  the  rights  of  owner- 
ship over  their  woods,  except  for  restrictions  enumerated  in 
the  following  articles. 

'6  Literally  this  could  be  rendered  undivided  or  litigated  woods  placed  under 
forest  administration. 

''  La  caisse  des  depots  et  des  consignations. 


PRIVATE    FORESTS,    ETC.  185 

Art.  98.  No  private  individual  can  claim  the  right  to  grub 
or  clear  his  woods  without  having  previously  made  a  declara- 
tion at  the  office  of  the  under  prefect  at  least  three  months 
in  advance,  during  which  time  the  department  can  make  known 
to  the  owner  its  opposition  to  the  clearing.  This  declaration 
should  give  the  election  domicile  in  the  canton  where  the  woods 
are  situated. 

Within  two  months  after  the  declaration,  a  Waters  and 
Forests  officer  shall  examine  the  condition  and  the  situation 
of  the  woods,  and  shall  draw  up  a  detailed  report. 

After  a  consideration  of  this  report,  the  conservator  of 
Waters  and  Forests  shall  lodge  his  objection  to  the  clearing 
if  any  exists. 

In  this  case,  the  report  shall  be  transmitted  to  the  owner 
who  can  state  his  case.  This  report  shall  then  be  transmitted 
to  the  Governor  General,  who  shall  decide,  after  deliberation 
with  the  government  council,  if  the  objection  shall  stand. 

If,  within  six  months  after  the  objection  has  been  presented, 
the  decision  of  the  Governor  General  has  not  been  rendered 
and  the  proprietor  of  the  woods  notified,  the  clearing  may  be 
effected. 

Art.  99.  Clearing  can  only  be  opposed  in  case  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  woods  is  recognized  as  necessary : 

1.  For  the  maintenance  of  lands  on  mountains  or  slopes. 

2.  For  protecting  the  soil  against  erosion  and  the  encroach- 

ment of  rivers,  streams,  or  torrents. 

3.  To  insure  the  existence  of  springs  or  water  courses. 

4.  For  the  protection  of  dunes  and  shores  against  erosion 

by  the  sea  and  encroachment  by  the  sand. 

5.  For  the  defence  of  territory  in  the  frontier  zone  which 

shall   be   determined   by   a   regulation    of    the    civil 
authorities. 

6.  For  the  sake  of  public  health. 

Art.  too.  In  case  of  any  violation  of  Art.  98,  the  person 
who  shall  have  effected,  or  caused  to  be  effected,  the  clearing 
shall  be  sentenced  to  a  minimum  fine  of  200  francs  ($38.60), 
and  a  maximum  fine  of  500  francs  ($96.50)  per  hectare  (2.5  acres) 
of  woods  which  have  been  cleared. 


1 86  THE   ALGERIAN   FOREST   CODE 

Moreover,  if  ordered  so  to  do  by  the  Governor  General,  he 
shall  replant  the  areas  denuded  within  three  years.^^ 

Art.  ioi.  In  case  the  owner  does  not  carry  out  the  planting 
or  sowing  within  the  time  prescribed  by  the  order  of  the  Gov- 
ernor General,  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service  can  see  that  it 
is  done  at  its  own  expense  upon  previous  authorization  from 
the  prefect  who  shall  order  a  memorandum  of  the  work  drawn 
up  and  the  cost  levied  against  the  owner. 

Art.  I02.  The  provisions  in  the  four  preceding  articles  are 
applicable  to  sowing  and  planting  executed  in  accordance  of 
the  Governor  General's  decision,  for  the  replacement  of  denuded 
woods. 

Art.  103.  The  following  are  excepted  from  the  provisions 
of  Art.  98: 

1.  Young  woods  during  the  first  twenty  years  after  their 

sowing  or  planting,  except  in  the  case  set  forth  in  the 
previous  article. 

2.  Parks   and   gardens   either   fenced   or   adjoining   habi- 

tations. 

3.  Woods  not  fenced,  less  than  10  hectares  (24  acres)  in 

extent,  on  condition  that  they  do  not  form  part  of 
another  wood  which  would  bring  up  the  area  to  10 
hectares  (24  acres),  or  that  they  are  not  situated  on 
the  summit  or  slopes  of  a  mountain. 

4.  Those  portions  of  forests  which  the  owners  have  been 

authorized  to  cut  down  in  virtue  of  Art.  9  of  the 
decree  of  Feb.  2,  1870. 

5.  The  land  which  has  been  reserved  as  woods  and  forests 

included  in  areas  (set  aside  for)  colonization. 

Art.  104.  Excessive  exploitation,  grazing  after  fellings,  cop- 
picing operations  or  fires,  which  may  cause  the  total  or  partial 
destruction  of. the  forest  in  which  they  are  practiced,  shall  be 
treated  as  deforestation,  and  in  consequence  those  who  have 
ordered  them  shall  be  subject  to  the  penalties  set  forth  under 
Arts.  100  and  loi. 

All  owners  of  stock  allowed  to  enter,  or  found  in  woods  less 
than  six  years  of  age,  shall  be  fined  in  accordance  with  the  rules 
set  forth  under  Art.  177,  paragraph  2. 

"  Literally  this  is:  "in  a  term  which  cannot  exceed  three  years." 


PRIVATE   FORESTS,   ETC.  187 

Art.  105.  The  provisions  of  the  preceding  article  are  not. 
applicable  to  the  afforestation  enumerated  under  Art.  103. 

Art.  109.^^  Woods  or  brush  situated  within  reafforestation 
areas  are  considered  as  coming  under  the  conditions  set  forth 
in  Art.  76,  and  cannot  be  denuded  at  any  time  without  the 
authorization  of  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service. 

Art.  1 10.  Owners  desirous  of  special  guards  for  the  pres- 
ervation of  their  woods  must  have  them  approved  by  the 
sub-prefect,  in  conformity  with  the  provisions  of  the  law  of 
April  12,  1892. 

The  orders  approving  of  these  guards  can  be  drawn  up  in 
accordance  with  paragraph  i  of  the  above-mentioned  law. 

These  guards  can  only  exercise  office  after  having  taken  oath 
before  the  justice  of  the  peace. 

Art.  III.  All  private  individuals  shall  have  the  privilege  of 
freeing  their  forests  from  rights  in  the  same  manner,  and  under 
the  same  conditions  as  the  State. 

Art.  112.  The  rights  of  pasturage  and  of  gathering  of  acorns 
in  private  woods  can  only  be  exercised  (in  case  of  disputes 
between  the  proprietors  and  right  owners)  in  those  portions  of 
the  woods  declared  closed  by  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service 
and  according  to  the  condition  and  yield  of  the  forests  reported 
by  the  Service. 

The  expenses  resulting  from  the  intervention  of  the  Waters 
and  Forests  Service  shall  be  adjudged  according  to  the  tariff 
applicable  to  experts,  and  shall  be  borne  equally  by  the  in- 
terested parties. 

The  roads  over  which  the  stock  must  pass  to  go  to  and 
from  the  pasturage  shall  be  indicated  by  the  owner.  Their 
minimum  breadth  shall  be  20  metres  (22  yards). 

Art.  113.  All  the  provisions  contained  in  Arts.  68,  69,  70, 
paragraphs  i,  71,  72,  and  74  of  the  present  law  are  applicable  to 
the  exercise  of  rights  in  woods  belonging  to  private  individuals. 
The  owner,  in  this  case,  exercises  the  same  rights  and  the  same 

19  Arts.  106  to  108  have  been  treated  above  in  Section  VIII  of  Part  III.  The 
classification  of  the  articles  does  not  follow  their  sequence  in  the  code  but  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  more  logical  arrangement  adopted  by  Guyot  in  his  commentary. 


l88  THE   ALGERIAN   FOREST  CODE 

control  as  the  Waters  and  Forests  officers  exercise  in  woods 
placed  under  forest  administration. 

Art.  114.  The  right  holders  shall  contribute  to  the  main- 
tenance of  the  roads  over  private  property  where  they  exercise 
their  rights. 

Art.  115.  In  case  of  disputes  between  the  owner  and  the 
right  holder  the  case  shall  be  brought  into  court. 

Art.  116.  Areas  sown  or  planted  on  the  summits  or  slopes 
of  mountains  and  upon  the  dunes  shall  be  exempt  from  all 
taxation  for  thirty  years.  Woods  and  forests  which  have  been 
burned  over  shall  be  exempt  from  all  taxation  for  a  period  of  ten 
years  so  far  as  the  part  which  has  been  destroyed  by  the  lire 
is  concerned,  and  in  case  the  fire  has  not  been  caused  by  the 
owner. 

Part  VII.  —  Police  and  Conservation  of  Woods 
AND  Forests 

SECTION   I.  —  provisions   APPLICABLE   TO   ALL  WOODS 

Re  damage  other  than  fire. 

Art.  117.  Whoever  shall  have  injured,  destroyed,  moved,  or 
obliterated  any  boundary  marks  or  fences  which  serve  to  the 
boundaries  of  the  forests,  or  forest  cantons,  shall  be  punished 
by  a  fine  of  5  to  500  francs  ($0.96  to  $96.50). 

If  a  series  of  boundary  marks,  or  a  considerable  length  of 
fence  has  been  destroyed,  moved,  or  obHterated,  the  offender  can 
in  addition  be  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  three  days  to 
three  months.  This  without  prejudice  to  the  claim  for  civil 
damages. 

In  any  event  the  return  of  the  objects  that  have  been  re- 
moved and  their  repair  shall  be  obligatory. 

Imprisonment  shall  be  obligatory  in  case  of  a  repetition  of 
the  offence. 

Art.  118.  All  unauthorized  quarrying  or  removal  of  stones, 
sand,  minerals,  earth,  turf  heather,  gorse,  grass,  green  or  dead 
leaves,  manure  found  on  the  forest  soil,  acorns  and  other  fruits, 
seeds  of  woods   and   forests,   shall  be  punished   by  tines  of  2 


PROVISIONS   APPLICABLE   TO   ALL   WOODS  1 89 

to  5  francs  ($0.39  to  $0.96)  for  each  harnessed  animal  em- 
ployed, of  I  to  2  francs  ($0.19  to  $0.38)  for  each  pack  animal, 
and  I  franc  ($0.19)  for  each  man. 

In  case  of  a  repetition  of  the  offence,  the  maximum  fine  shall 
always  be  enforced,  and  the  offender  can,  in  addition,  be  sen- 
tenced to  from  one  to  three  days'  imprisonment. 

Art.  119.  The  Bridge  and  Road  Service  (Fonts  et  Chaussees) 
has  the  right  to  designate  where  excavations  shall  be  made  for 
materials  for  pubhc  works;  nevertheless  contractors  who  have 
undertaken  such  works  shall  be  bound  by  the  State,  communes, 
and  public  institutions,  as  well  as  by  private  individuals  to  pay 
all  legal  indemnities  and  to  observe  all  the  prescribed  laws  and 
regulations  in  connection  with  such  excavations. 

Art.  120.  Whoever  shall  have  ploughed  up  any  portion  of 
the  woods  and  forests  shall  be  condemned  to  a  proportionate 
fine  from  a  minimum  of  50  francs  ($9.65)  to  a  maximum  of  200 
francs  ($38.60)  by  the  hectare  (2.5  acres),  but  no  fine  can  be 
less  than  10  francs  ($1.93). 

In  case  of  a  repetition  of  the  offence  the  maximum  fine  shall 
be  always  enforced  and  the  offender  can  be  sentenced  in  addition 
to  eight  days'  imprisonment. 

Art.  121.  Any  persons  found  in  the  woods  and  forests  at 
night,  off  the  highways  and  ordinary  roads,  with  bill-hooks, 
axes,  hatchets,  saws,  or  other  instruments  of  a  similar  nature, 
shall  be  sentenced  to  a  fine  of  5  to  10  francs  ($0.96  to  $1.93)  and 
have  the  aforesaid  instruments  confiscated. 

The  maximum  fine  shall  be  enforced  in  case  of  repetition  of 
the  offence. 

Art.  122.  Any  persons  whose  wagons,  stock,  pack,  or  saddle 
animals  shall  be  found  in  the  forest  off  the  highways  and  ordi- 
nary roads  shall  be  sentenced  as  follows: 

To  a  fine  of  5  to  10  francs  ($0.96  to  $1.93)  for  each  wagon 
found  in  the  forest,  10  years  of  age  and  upwards,  and  10  to  20 
francs  ($1.93  to  $3.86)  if  the  wood  is  less  than  that  age. 

And  for  each  head  of  stock  of  any  kind  unharnessed,  to  the 
fines  fixed  for  grazing  trespass  under  Art.  177.  This  without 
prejudice  to  the  claim  for  civil  damages. 


I90  THE   ALGERIAN   FOREST   CODE 

In  case  of  repetition  of  the  offence  the  maximum  fine  shall 
be  enforced. 

Art.  134.-°  Decrees  of  the  Governor  General,  deHvered  in 
the  government  council,  shall  determine  the  conditions  for 
exploitation,  advertisement,  sale  and  export  of  cork,  tan -bark, 
charcoal,  wood  and  wood  ash,  alfa,  resinous  products  of  the 
forests,  and  sticks  intended  for  cane  manufacture. 

Any  person  violating  this  regulation  shall  be  sentenced  to 
a  fine  of  i  to  100  francs  ($0.19  to  $19.30).  They  may,  in 
addition,  be  liable  to  five  days'  imprisonment  and  the  confis- 
cation of  the  products  without  prejudice  to  the  application  of 
Art.  142  of  the  present  law. 

In  case  of  a  repetition  of  the  offence,  the  imprisonment  shall 
be  obligatory. 

Art.  135.  No  exploitation  or  even  the  felling  of  a  tree  can 
take  place  in  the  dayas  -^  without  the  authorization  of  the 
Governor  General  or  his  deputy. 

Re  fires. 

Art.  123.  Kindling  fires  or  carrying  lights  outside  logging 
houses  or  buildings  is  prohibited  inside  and  within  a  distance 
of  200  metres  (218  yards)  of  woods  and  forests. 

From  the  ist  of  July  until  the  30th  of  October  this  prohibi- 
tion is  applicable  even  to  owners  of  woods  and  forests,  and 
includes  the  manufacture  of  charcoal,  the  distillation  of  tar  and 
resin. 

Nevertheless,  during  the  period  November  i  to  June  30,  the 
owners  of  woods  and  forests,  or  those  having  rights  (over  them), 
whatever  may  be  the  distance  of  the  neighbouring  property 
and  provided  that  it  is  separated  from  their  wood  by  a  trench 
built  and  maintained  in  accordance  with  the  following  article, 
are  authorized  to  establish  charcoal  pits  and  charcoal  furnaces 
for  the  distillation  of  tar  and  resin,  and  to  kindle  fires  in  their 
workshops,  as  well  as  to  burn  in  piles  the  brush  and  stumps 
left  over  and  debris  from  the  felling  operations. 

The  employment  of  fire  in  the  logging  houses  and  buildings, 

20  Arts.  134  and  135  logically  follow  Art.  122. 
2'  A  local  native  subdivision. 


PROVISIONS   APPLICABLE   TO   ALL   WOODS  191 

shelters,  camps,  timber-yards,  or  workshops  situated  in  the 
forest,  or  within  a  zone  of  200  metres  (218  yards),  during  the 
period  from  the  ist  of  July  to  the  31st  of  October,  shall  be 
subject  to  the  regulations  and  decrees  given  in  pursuance  of  the 
execution  of  this  law. 

Art.  124.  An  owner  of  wooded  or  forested  land  which  has 
not  been  brushed  out,  or  of  land  covered  with  dead  wood,  can 
be  forced  by  the  owner  of  a  similar  adjoining  property  to  con- 
struct and  maintain,  on  his  side,  on  the  boundaries  between  the 
two  estates  a  (fire)  line  cleared  of  all  brush,  and  of  all  coniferous 
wood,  and  to  keep  it  thoroughly  cleared  of  brush.  This  (tire) 
line,  whose  width  may  vary  from  10  to  100  metres  (11  to  109 
yards),  shall  be  constructed  half  on  each  side  of  the  adjoining 
boundaries,  by  agreement  between  the  interested  parties,  and 
in  case  of  disagreement,  by  the  prefect,  the  conservator  of  the 
Waters  and  Forests  acting  for  him.  Actions  concerning  the 
construction  and  the  maintenance  of  such  protective  Hnes  shall 
take  place,  be  put  in  practice,  and  judgment  dehvered  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  the  case  of  boundaries. 

Art.  125.  Setting  fires,  as  well  as  the  burning  cf  standing 
growth,  shall  conform  to  regulations  and  decrees  promulgated 
in  the  enforcement  of  this  law. 

Setting  fire  shall  only  be  allowed  after  authorization  by  the 
Waters  and  Forests  officers,  and  under  the  surveillance  of  em- 
ployees, if  it  is  a  question  of  ground  situated  less  than  200 
metres  (218  yards)  from  the  woods  and  forests,  during  the 
period  from  the  ist  of  November  until  the  30th  of  June,  and 
less  than  500  metres  (546  yards)  between  the  ist  of  July  and 
the  31st  of  October. 

Art.  126.  If  a  case  arise  when,  in  spite  of  obser\dng  the 
precautions  enjoined  in  the  foregoing  articles,  the  fire  should 
extend  to  the  neighbouring  properties,  the  originator  of  the  fire 
shall  be  Hable  to  all  damages,  if  any  occur. 

Any  person  setting  a  fire  in  violation  of  the  provisions  of  the 
foregoing  articles,  which  shall  damage  the  neighbouring  prop- 
erties, shall  be  condemned  to  prison  for  from  one  to  five  years. 
In  this  case,  Art.  363  of  the  Penal  Code  shall  be  applicable. 


192  THE   ALGERIAN    FOREST  CODE 

Art.  127.  In  the  forest  regions,  the  native  rural  population, 
and  in  general  all  right  holders,  shall  be  compelled,  during  the 
period  July  i  to  November  i,  under  pain  of  the  penalties  set 
forth  in  Art.  136,  to  act  as  watchmen,  which  duties  shall  be 
regulated  by  decree  from  the  Governor  General  of  Algeria. 

This  watch  duty  shall  be  obligatory  for  the  right  holders  and, 
if  there  are  insufficient,  for  all  able-bodied  men  residing  in  the 
communes  or  section  of  communes  bordering  the  forests.  They 
shall  not  necessarily  be  paid. 

Art.  128.  During  the  period  of  watch  duty  the  Governor 
General  can  have  detachments,  commanded  by  officers  and  sub- 
alterns, sent  into  the  forests  to  co-operate  with  the  Waters  and 
Forests  officers,  in  carrying  out  such  measures  as  are  legally 
undertaken  against  fires. 

The  officers  and  subalterns  thus  delegated  shall  be  placed 
under  the  local  administrative  authority,  and  invested  with 
legal  police  powers  which  the  constabulary  possess.  The  regu- 
lation of  this  force  shall  be  appHcated  to  them,  in  their  relations 
with  the  official  and  civil  authorities. 

Art.  129.  Any  European  or  native  requested  to  help  in 
putting  out  a  fire,  who  has  refused  his  ser\aces  without  legiti- 
mate reasons,  shall  be  liable  to  the  penalties  carried  by  Art.  136. 

As  concerns  the  native  population,  the  request  shall  be  con- 
sidered as  having  been  made  legitimately,  when  it  has  been 
addressed  to  the  headman  (sheik,  adjutant,  hudsman  (or), 
ouakhaf)  by  any  officer  of  the  civil  authority  or  by  a  Waters 
and  Forests  officer,  or  employee,  or  even  by  a  specially  sworn 
guard-warden. 

The  right  holders  shall  besides  be  punished  by  the  suspension 
of  their  rights  for  a  period  of  three  months  and  a  maximum  of 
five  years;  sentence  shall  be  pronounced  by  the  justice  of  the 
peace. 

Art.  130.  In  all  territory,  either  civil  or  military,  inde- 
pendent of  the  sentence  passed  on  individuals  incurred  by  the 
originators  or  accomplices  of  crimes,  delinquencies  or  offences 
relative  to  forest  fires,  the  tribes,  douars,  or  divisions  can  be 
fined  collectively  in  the  following  manner  and  conditions: 


PROVISIONS   APPLICABLE  TO  ALL  WOODS  193 

These  fines  shall  be  imposed  by  the  Governor  General  at  the 
government  council,  after  review  of  the  minutes,  reports,  and 
recommendations  of  the  local  administrative  authority  and  of 
the  Waters  and  Forests  Service,  the  chiefs  of  tribes  or  douars 
having  been  previously  notified. 

The  proceeds  of  the  fines  shall  be  deposited  at  the  Treasury. 
They  can  be  entirely  or  partly  employed  towards  repairing  the 
damage  caused  by  the  fires.  In  this  case  the  Governor  General 
shall  draw  up  the  assessment  statement  and  shall  forward  it  to 
the  injured  parties;  these  may  protest  to  the  Council  of  State 
against  the  decisions  made  by  the  Governor  General  with  re- 
gard to  them,  within  a  period  of  two  months  after  having  re- 
ceived the  notification. 

When  the  fires  by  their  nature,  or  by  the  fact  of  their  occur- 
ring simultaneously,  indicate  preconcerted  action  on  the  part  of 
the  natives,  they  may  be  treated  as  acts  of  rebellion  and  in 
consequence  can  lead  to  an  application  for  sequestration  in 
accordance  with  the  provisions  actually  in  force  under  the 
Royal  decree  of  October  13,  1845. 

Art.  131.  The  right  holders  are  forbidden  to  use  their 
grazing  privileges  for  a  period  of  at  least  six  years,  throughout 
the  whole  area  of  woods  and  forests  which  have  been  burnt, 
under  pain  of  the  penalties  imposed  in  Art.  177,  paragraph  2, 
of  the  present  law. 

In  private  woods  this  prohibition  can  be  removed  by  the 
Governor  General  at  the  request  of  the  owner,  after  consul- 
tation with  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service. 

Art.  132.  Railway  or  steam  tramway  companies  having 
grants  or  leases,  and  built  within  or  bordering  woods  and  forests 
shall  not  allow  any  grass  or  herbaceous  growth  to  grow  on  the 
railway  right-of-way  from  June  i  to  November  i  under  penalty 
of  a  fine  of  16  to  300  francs  ($3.09  to  $57.90)- 

Moreover,  fire  lines  may  be  (required  to  be)  constructed  along 
the  track,  cleared  of  all  brush  and,  if  it  is  considered  necessary, 
of  all  conifers,  and  constantly  maintained  in  good  condition. 
These  fire  lines  shall  be  20  metres  (22  yards)  in  breadth,  com- 
mencing at  the  railway  right-of-way  and  shall  be  constructed 


194  THE   ALGERIAN   FOREST  CODE 

within  six  months  from  the  date  of  the  official  order  for  their 
construction. 

The  work  of  constructing  and  maintaining  these  Hnes  shall  be 
performed  by  the  companies  at  their  own  expense.  In  default 
they  shall  be  punished  by  the  penalties  established  by  para- 
graph I,  and  Art.  42  of  the  present  law  shall  apply. 

Within  a  month  after  the  construction  of  the  fire  lines  the 
owners  can  remove  all  or  a  part  of  the  debris,  the  companies 
being  bound  to  carry  away  the  remainder.  If  any  question  of 
indemnity  arises  it  shall  be  decided  by  expert  authority,  and 
in  case  of  dispute,  by  the  district  council. 

Art.  133.  In  cases  of  fire,  the  management  of  the  fire  fighters 
shall  be  assigned  to  the  French  Waters  and  Forests  ranking 
officer  on  the  ground,  and  if  there  is  none,  to  the  mayor  or  civil 
servant.  In  default  of  the  Waters  and  Forests  officers,  of  the 
mayor  or  civil  servant,  the  ranking  employee  of  the  Waters  and 
Forests  shall  direct  the  fire  fighters. 

In  case  it  is  necessary  to  back  fire,  the  same  persons  shall 
take  charge  and  direct  this  procedure. 

This  measure  can  never  give  grounds  for  damages  against 
them. 

Art.  136.-^  All  violation  of  Arts.  123,  124,  125,  129,  and  135 
of  the  present  law,  or  against  the  decrees  issued  for  its  execution, 
shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  of  20  to  500  francs  ($3.86  to  $96.50), 
and  in  addition  the  offender  can  be  imprisoned  for  six  days  to 
six  months,  without  prejudice  in  cases  of  fire  of  the  penalties 
declared  under  Art.  126  of  the  present  law,  and  of  all  damages 
if  any  such  occur. 

SECTION    II. — PROVISIONS    APPLICABLE    ONLY   TO    WOODS    AND 
FORESTS    PLACED    UNDER   FOREST    ADMINISTRATION 

Art.  137.  No  industrial  works,  employing  fire  or  necessi- 
tating a  story  of  combustible  materials,  can  be  established 
within  or  at  less  than  500  metres  (546  yards)  from  the  forest, 
without  the  authorization  of  the   prefect,  under  penalty  of  a 

22  Arts.  134  and  135  follow  Art.  122. 


PROSECUTIONS  1 95 

fine  of  100  to  500  francs  ($19.30  to  $96.50)  and  the  demolition 
of  the  buildings. 

Art.  138.  Aside  from  the  native  settlements  already  in  exist- 
ence, no  tent  or  gourbi,-^  no  building  covered  or  thatched  with 
straw  diss  -■*  or  any  other  inflammable  material  can  be  built 
within  or  at  less  than  100  metres  (109  yards)  distant  from  woods 
and  forests,  under  penalty  of  a  fine  of  5  to  50  francs  ($0.96  to 
$9.65)  and  demoHtion  within  a  month  from  the  day  on  which 
judgment  was  given. 

Within  such  enclosures  too  limited  in  area  for  the  preced- 
ing provisions  to  be  put  into  practice,  the  distance  between 
the  dwellings  and  the  borders  of  the  forest  can  be  reduced  to 
50  metres  (54  yards),  without  any  authorization,  and  below 
that  figure  by  authorization  of  the  sub-prefect,  upon  recom- 
mendation of  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service,  but  under  con- 
dition that  the  ground  contained  in  the  space  between  the 
dwellings  and  the  forest  boundaries  shall  be  cleared  of  all  coni- 
fers, and  of  all  inflammable  material  and  kept  absolutely  clear 
of  all  brush. 

Part  VIII.  —  Prosecutions  for  Misdemeanours  . 
AND  Offences 

SECTION   I.  —  prosecutions   UNDERTAKEN  IN  THE  NAME  OF   THE 
WATERS   AND   FORESTS    SERVICE 

Re  prosecution. 

Art.  139.  The  Waters  and  Forests  Service  undertakes,  not 
only  in  the  interest  of  the  State,  but  also  in  the  interest  of  the 
other  owners  of  woods  and  forests  placed  under  forest  adminis- 
tration, to  prosecute  for  misdemeanours  and  offences  committed 
in  these  woods  and  forests. 

The  Service  also  undertakes  to  prosecute  for  misdemeanours 
and  offences  set  forth  in  Arts.  98,  104,  123,  125,  1,26,  127,  129, 
131,  and  134. 

Actions  and  prosecutions  shall  be  brought  and  undertaken  by 
the  Waters  and  Forests  officers,  in  the  name  of  the  Waters  and 

2^  Gourbi  —  Arab  term  meaning  a  brush  hut. 

"  Diss  is  a  local  grass  used  for  thatching  native  gourbis. 


Iq6  the   ALGERIAN   FOREST  CODE 

Forests  Service  without  prejudicing  the  rights  of   the  public 
prosecutor. 

Art.  140.  Before  final  judgment  has  been  delivered  the 
Waters  and  Forests  Service  is  authorized  to  compromise  tres- 
passes and  offences,  for  which  it  undertakes  to  prosecute  in 
virtue  of  the  preceding  article. 

Even  after  judgment  has  been  delivered,  it  is  also  authorized 
to  compromise  civil  suits  and  fines. 

Art.  150.^^  All  actions  and  prosecutions  undertaken  at  the 
request  of  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service  are  brought  before 
the  police  courts,  or  the  justice  of  the  peace,  according  to  the 
jurisdiction  as  determined  by  the  decrees  of  Aug.  19,  1854, 
March  29,  1902,  and  May  29,  1902. 

Art.  152.  The  Waters  and  Forests  employees  have  the  right 
to  present  the  case  before  the  court  and  are  expected  to  support 
their  own  conclusions. 

Art.  161.  The  Waters  and  Forests  Service  officers  can,  in 
the  name  of  the  Service,  lodge  an  appeal  against  the  sentences, 
and  appeal  against  decrees  and  sentences  of  last  resort,  but 
they  cannot  withdraw  their  appeals  without  the  special  author- 
ization of  the  Governor  General. 

Art.  162.  The  right  given  to  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service 
and  to  its  officers  to  go  beyond  sentences  and  decrees  by  appeal, 
or  by  recourse  to  the  supreme  court,  is  independent  of  the  same 
privilege,  which  is  granted  by  law  to  the  public  prosecutor,  who 
can  always  avail  himself  of  it,  even  when  the  Service  or  its 
officers  shall  have  acquiesced  in  the  sentences  and  decrees. 

Re  examination. 

Art.  141.  The  officers  and  employees  of  the  Waters  and 
Forests  investigate  and  prove  the  trespasses  and  offences  as 
follows:  The  officers  over  the  whole  territory  for  which  they 
are  commissioned,  and  the  employees,  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  court  in  which  they  have  taken  oath. 

Art.  142.   The  employees  are  authorized  to  seize  cattle  which 
are  trespassing,  and  implements,  wagons,   and  teams  of  tres- 
es To  secure  a  more  logical  arrangement  of  subject  matter  the  numerical  order 
of  the  code  has  been  somewhat  modified. 


PROSECUTIONS  197 

passers  and  to  sequestrate  them.  They  shall  trace  all  articles 
removed  by  trespassers  to  the  places  where  they  have  been 
transported,  and  shall  also  sequestrate  them  there. 

They  cannot,  however,  enter  the  houses,  courts,  or  enclosures, 
unless  in  the  presence  either  of  the  justice  of  the  peace  or  his 
deputy;  of  the  mayor  or  his  adjutant;  of  a  commissary  of 
poHce,  or  in  addition,  so  far  as  natives  are  concerned,  of  either 
the  native  adjutant  or  the  headman,  sheik,  or  ouakaf. 

Art.  143.  The  officials  designated  in  the  preceding  article 
cannot  refuse  to  accompany  the  employees  in  the  field,  when 
they  have  been  thus  requested  to  assist  at  the  search. 

In  addition  to  this,  they  shall  be  bound  to  sign  the  report 
of  the  sequestration  or  of  the  search  made  in  their  presence, 
with  the  provision  however,  in  case  of  a  refusal  to  sign,  that 
mention  shall  be  made  of  this  in  the  report. 

Art.  144.  The  employees  shall  arrest  and  conduct  before  the 
justice  of  the  peace,  or  before  the  mayor,  or  before  the  headman 
of  the  tribe  or  of  the  doner,  any  native  entirely  unknown  to 
them,  if  he  is  caught  in  the  act  of  trespass. 

Art.  145.  The  officers  and  employees  of  the  Waters  and 
Forests  Service  have  the  right  to  requisition,  directly,  the  help 
of  the  poUce  in  suppressing  forest  misdemeanors  and  offences, 
as  well  as  for  the  search  and  seizure  of  forest  products  which 
have  been  illegally  removed,  sold,  or  advertised  contrary  to 
decrees  of  the  Governor  General  as  set  forth  under  Art.  134. 

Art.  147.  The  justice  of  the  peace  may  allow  a  provisional 
withdrawal  of  the  goods  seized  to  cover  the  costs  of  seizure, 
after  rehable  bail  has  been  given. 

In  case  of  any  dispute  as  to  the  solvency  of  the  bail,  judgment 
shall  be  dehvered  by  the  justice  of  the  peace. 

Art.  148.  Owners  shall  be  notified  of  all  seizures  by  the 
officer  or  employee  of  Waters  and  Forests,  within  a  period  of 
three  days. 

If  the  articles,  or  the  cattle  seized,  are  not  reclaimed  within 
five  days  following  the  seizure,  or  if  good  and  sufficient  bail 
has  not  been  provided,  the  justice  of  the  peace  shall  order  them 
to  be  sold  by  auction  at  the  nearest  market.    If  the  owner  of  the 


igS  THE   ALGERIAN   FOREST  CODE 

articles  or  of  the  cattle  is  not  known,  the  sale  can  be  ordered 
five  days  after  the  seizure. 

Proceedings  shall  be  taken  at  the  convenience  of  the  public 
receiver  who  will  announce  them  24  hours  in  advance. 

The  expenses  of  seizure  and  sale  shall  be  levied  on  the  sale 
proceeds  by  the  justice  of  the  peace;  and  the  surplus  shall 
remain  in  the  hands  of  the  pubUc  receiver  to  be  assigned  to 
whomsoever  it  is  due. 

If  the  objection  to  any  decision  only  takes  place  after  the  sale 
the  owner  can  only  claim  the  restitution  of  the  net  profit  of  the 
sale  with  all  expenses  deducted,  in  the  case  where  judgment  has 
been  decided  in  favour  of  this  restitution. 

Art.  146.  Ofiicers  and  employees  shall  write  their  reports 
themselves  and  shall  sign  them,  under  penalty  of  their  becoming 
null  and  void. 

If,  by  reason  of  any  impediment,  the  report  is  only  signed  by 
the  guard  but  not  written  entirely  in  his  hand,  mention  of  this 
fact  under  oath  shall  be  made  in  the  report,  and  sworn  to 
within  a  period  of  three  days,  before  the  cantonal  magistrate 
or  one  of  his  deputies  or  before  the  mayor  or  his  deputy,  either 
of  the  commune  where  he  resides  or  of  that  where  the  offence 
has  been  committed  or  proved,  under  penalty  of  becoming  null 
and  void. 

The  pubHc  officer  who  shall  receive  the  affirmation  shall 
previously  read  the  report  to  the  officer  in  charge,  and  after- 
wards make  mention  of  this  formality  under  penalty  of  becoming 
null  and  void. 

In  cases  where  the  report  shall  lead  to  seizure,  immediately 
after  the  closing  of  the  case  a  copy  of  it  shall  be  made,  which 
shall  be  deposited  within  three  days  at  the  registry  of  the 
justice  of  the  peace  court,  so  that  those  who  might  wish  to 
reclaim  the  articles  seized  can  be  notified. 

Art.  149.  Under  penalty  of  becoming  null  and  void  the  re- 
ports shall  be  registered  within  four  days  of  the  affirmation  or 
closing  of  the  case,  when  the  registrar  resides  in  the  locality 
inhabited  by  the  clerk  who  has  drawn  up  the  report.  Should 
he  reside  elsewhere  10  days  will  be  given. 


PROSECUTIONS  1 99 

In  all  cases  within  military  territory  the  period  of  time  is  a 
fortnight. 

The  registration  may  be  paid  for  by  instalments. 

Art.  153.  Offences  or  trespasses  against  forest  property  shall 
be  proved  by  reports,  or  by  witnesses  in  default  of  reports,  in  case 
these  documents  are  insufficient. 

Art.  154.  Reports  invested  with  all  the  formalities  pre- 
scribed by  Arts.  146  and  149,  and  which  are  written  and  signed 
by  two  French  Waters  and  Forests  officers,  shall  be  taken  as 
proofs  until  they  have  been  disproved  of  material  facts  relating 
to  the  trespasses  and  offences  which  they  describe,  whatever 
may  be  the  convictions  to  which  these  offences  and  trespasses 
may  lead.  Consequently,  no  proofs  beyond  or  against  the 
material  (facts)  of  these  reports  will  be  admitted  unless  legal 
ground  exists  for  challenging  one  of  the  signatories. 

Art.  155.  Reports,  invested  with  all  the  formalities  pre- 
scribed, which  are  drawn  up  or  signed  only  by  a  single  French 
Waters  and  Forests  officer,  shall  also  be  taken  as  proofs  until 
they  have  been  disproved,  but  only  when  the  offence  or  tres- 
passes shall  not  lead  to  a  conviction  for  more  than  100  francs 
($19.30)  either  as  fine  or  civil  damages. 

When  one  of  these  reports  shall  authenticate  charges  of  dis- 
tinct and  separate  offences  and  misdemeanors  simultaneously 
against  several  individuals,  it  shall  be  equally  admissible,  ac- 
cording to  the  terms  of  the  present  article,  for  each  offence  or 
misdemeanor  which  shall  not  lead  to  a  conviction  for  more  than 
100  francs  ($19.30)  for  fines  or  for  damages,  whatever  may  be 
the  amount  of  all  the  aggregate  sentences. 

Art.  156.  Official  reports  which,  according  to  the  preceding 
provisions,  do  not  furnish  sufficient  proofs  or  have  been  shown 
to  be  in  error,  as  well  as  reports  drawn  up  by  native  guards,  can 
be  corroborated  or  corrected  by  all  the  legalized  tests  as  set 
forth  in  Art.  154  of  the  code  of  criminal  procedure. 

Art.  157.  The  accused,  who  wishes  to  disprove  a  report,  shall 
be  obHged  to  make  in  person,  or  else  by  proxy  having  a  proper 
power  of  attorney,  an  affidavit  to  that  effect  at  the  registry  of 
the  court,  or  at  the  court  of  the  justice  of  the  peace,  before 
the  session  mentioned  in  the  summons. 


200  THE   ALGERIAN   FOREST  CODE 

This  afi&davit  shall  be  received  by  the  registrar  and  signed  by 
the  accused  or  his  proxy;  in  case  of  his  being  unable  or  not 
knowing  how  to  sign,  express  mention  of  the  fact  shall  be  made. 

On  the  day  fixed  for  the  hearing,  the  tribunal  shall  certify  and 
fix  a  period  of  three  days  at  the  least,  or  a  week  at  the  most, 
during  which  the  accused  shall  be  obliged  to  deposit  at  the 
registrar's  office  the  proofs  of  the  falsity,  and  the  names,  titles, 
and  residences  of  the  witnesses  he  wishes  to  have  summoned. 

After  the  expiration  of  this  period,  and  without  a  new  sum- 
mons being  necessary,  the  tribunal  shall  accept  the  proofs  of 
the  falsity,  if  they  are  of  a  nature  to  destroy  the  effect  of  the 
report,  and  they  shall  proceed  on  that  assumption,  in  accordance 
with  the  law. 

In  the  opposite  case,  or  if  the  accused  fails  to  comply  with 
all  the  formalities  described  above,  the  tribunal  shall  declare 
that  the  proofs  of  falsity  cannot  be  accepted,  and  shall  order 
that  sentence  be  pronounced. 

Art.  158.  The  accused,  against  whom  judgment  has  been 
given  by  default,  shall  be  allowed  to  make  his  affidavit  as  to 
falsity  during  the  period  of  time  permitted  him  by  the  law, 
when  he  must  appear  personally  at  the  hearing  of  the  contest 
he  has  made. 

Art.  159.  When  a  report  has  been  drawn  up  accusing  several 
persons  and  when  one  or  more  of  them  shall  plead  "not  guilty," 
the  report  shall  still  be  held  valid  as  proof  against  the  others, 
unless  the  fact  which  the  former  declare  false  applies  in  like 
manner  to  the  other  persons  accused. 

Art.  151.  The  Waters  and  Forests  Service  employees  can, 
in  actions  and  prosecutions  undertaken  in  the  name  of  the 
Service,  issue  all  necessary  summonings,  and  judicial  notices 
of  writs,  without  formal  subpoenas.  The  summons  must  con- 
tain a  copy  of  the  official  report,  under  penalty  of  becoming 
null  and  void. 

The  remuneration  due  employees  for  these  summonings  (in 
the  case  of  their  being  removed  from  office)  shall  be  calculated 
according  to  the  tariff  appUcable  to  the  writs  of  sheriffs'  officers 
or  bailiffs,  by  orders  of  the  justice  of  the  peace. 


PROSECUTIONS  20I 

Art.  i6o.  If,  in  case  of  reparation  for  an  offence  or  misde- 
meanour, the  accused  pleads  a  property  right  or  other  real 
right,  the  tribunal  before  which  the  case  is  presented  shall 
deliver  judgment  in  this  matter,  according  to  the  following 
rules : 

The  aforesaid  exception  can  only  be  admitted,  if  it  be  founded 
on  some  manifest  title  deeds,  or  rights,  either  on  the  facts  of 
actual  possession  or  their  equivalent  by  the  accused  or  his 
predecessors,  and  precisely  enumerated  by  him,  and  if  in  the 
case  where  they  shall  be  admitted  by  a  competent  authority, 
the  deed  produced  and  the  facts  enumerated  shall  be  of  a  nature 
to  remove  from  the  case  which  serves  as  a  basis  to  the  prose- 
cution, all  character  of  misdemeanour  or  offence. 

If  the  case  is  sent  to  the  civil  courts,  the  sentence  shall  be 
delayed  for  a  brief  period,  during  which  the  party  who  has 
raised  the  aforesaid  question,  shall  lay  it  before  competent 
judges  of  the  case  and  justify  his  suit;  if  not,  judgment  shall 
be  pronounced.  * 

However,  in  case  of  conviction,  there  shall  be  a  delay  of 
execution  as  regards  imprisonment,  if  this  sentence  has  been 
pronounced,  and  the  sum  total  of  fines,  restitutions,  and 
damages  shall  be  paid  into  the  government  bank  of  deposits, 
to  be  handed  over  to  whomsoever  the  court  shall  order,  who 
shall  pass  judgment  on  the  question  of  these  rights. 

Art.  163.  Actions  in  reparation  of  misdemeanours  and 
offences,  connected  with  forest  matters,  are  enjoined  for  six 
months,  to  count  from  the  day  when  the  misdemeanours  and 
offences  have  been  verified,  without  prejudice  (with  regard  to 
purchasers  and  contractors)  to  the  provisions  set  forth  in  Arts. 
48,  49,  51,  52,  and  73  of  the  present  law. 

Art.  164.  Actions  having  to  do  with  the  denudation  of  wood 
and  brush,  undertaken  contrary  to  the  provisions  prescribed 
in  Art.  98,  are  enjoined  for  two  years,  to  date  from  the  period 
when  the  clearing  has  been  effected. 

Art.  165.  The  provisions  of  Art.  163  are  not  applicable  to 
offences,  misdemeanours,  and  malpractices  committed  by  Waters 
and  Forests  officers  or  employees  in  the  exercise  of  their  office; 


202  THE   ALGERIAN   FOREST   CODE 

the  delays  in  carrying  out  the  sentences  passed  upon  them  or 
their  accomplices  are  those  determined  by  the  criminal  code. 

Art.  i66.  The  provisions  of  the  code  of  criminal  procedure 
with  regard  to  the  prosecution  of  misdemeanours  and  offences, 
upon  summonses  and  delays  upon  defaults,  oppositions,  judg- 
ments, appeals,  and  recourse  to  the  court  of  appeal,  are  and 
shall  remain  applicable  to  the  prosecution  of  misdemeanours 
and  offences  specified  by  the  present  law,  except  with  regard  to 
the  modifications  resulting  from  the  present  part. 

SECTION  n.  —  PROSECUTIONS  FOR  MISDEMEANOURS  AND  OFFENCES 
IN   WOODS   NOT   UNDER  FOREST   ADMINISTRATION 

Art.  167.  Misdemeanours  and  offences  committed  in  the 
woods  not  under  forest  administration  shall  also  be  inquired 
into  and  verified  by  federal  or  private  forest  employees,  as  well 
as  by  rural  police,  police,  and  in  general  by  the  officers  of  the 
judiciary  poHce. 

Reports  drawn  up  by  the  federal  employees  shall  be  received 
in  evidence  as  stated  in  Arts.  154  and  155  of  the  present  law. 
Those  of  the  private  French  guards  shall  hold  good  until  con- 
trary proof  is  given.  Those  of  private  native  guards  shall  only 
be  regarded  as  reports  for  the  information  of  the  ofl&cials.  The 
weight  given  to  the  reports  drawn  up  by  officers  of  the  judiciary 
police,  policeman,  and  the  rural  police  is  determined  by  the  law 
which  applies  to  them.  These  reports,  with  the  exception  of 
those  drawn  up  by  private  guards,  shall  be  registered  without 
advance  payment. 

Art.  168.  The  provisions  contained  in  Arts.  142,  143,  144, 
147,  148,  149,  160,  163,  and  166  as  above  are  appHcable  to  the 
prosecution  of  misdemeanours  and  offences  committed  in  words 
not  subject  to  forest  jurisdiction. 

The  provisions  of  Art.  146  shall  be  applicable  to  the  dra wing- 
up  of  reports  made  by  private  guards  when  they  are  able  to 
write  their  reports  themselves.  If  unable  to  write,  these  reports 
written  out  by  a  third  party  shall  be  subject  to  the  formality 
of  oath,  and  registered  within  the  time  fixed  by  Arts.  146  and 
149. 


PENALTIES  AND   SENTENCES  203 

Art.  169.  Reports  drawn  up  by  private  guards  shall  be  for- 
warded to  the  attorney  for  the  RepubHc,  or  the  justice  of  the 
peace,  according  to  their  respective  jurisdictions,  within  a  period 
of  ten  days,  to  date  from  the  registration. 

Those  drawn  up  by  federal  (forest)  employees  shall  be  trans- 
mitted, after  the  formahties  prescribed  by  the  present  law  have 
been  complied  with,  and  within  the  same  period  of  time,  by  the 
Waters  and  Forests  inspector  to  the  attorney  for  the  Republic, 
who  alone  shall  undertake  the  prosecutions. 

Art.  170.  Cases  of  ofifences  and  misdemeanours  committed 
in  woods  and  forests  belonging  to  private  individuals  shall  be 
tried  according  to  the  regulations  concerning  jurisdiction  indi- 
cated in  Art.  150. 

Part  IX.  —  Penalties  and  Sentences  Applicable 
TO  Woods  and  Forests  in  General 

Re  penalties. 

Art.  171.  The  cutting  or  removal  of  trees  2  decimetres  (7.9 
inches)  or  more  in  circumference,  one  metre  (i.i  yards)  above 
the  ground,  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  of  i  franc  ($0.19)  per 
tree  as  a  minimum  which  shall  not  be  less  than  the  value  of 
the  tree. 

In  case  of  a  repetition  of  the  offence,  the  fine  shall  not  be  less 
than  double  the  value  of  the  tree. 

In  addition  the  offender  can  be  condemned  to  a  maximum  of 
three  months'  imprisonment. 

The  report  describing  the  trespass  must  give  the  number  and 
size  of  the  trees  cut  down  or  removed,  or  mention  the  circum- 
stances which  have  prevented  the  recording  of  these  details. 

The  (civil)  damages  shall  be  awarded  by  the  court  according 
to  the  data  of  the  report  and  the  merits  of  the  case,  but  they 
shall  not  be  less  than  the  minimum  fixed  by  Art.  180. 

Art.  172.  The  fine  for  cutting  down,  pulHng  up,  or  carrying 
away  trees  less  than  2  decimetres  (7.9  inches)  in  circumference 
shall  be  for  every  cart  load  from  3  to  10  francs  ($0.58  to  $1.93) 
per  harnessed  animal,  and  from  2  to  5  francs  ($0.39  to  $0.96) 
for  every  pack  load,  and  from  0.50  to  2  francs  ($0.09  to  I0.39) 


204  THE   ALGERIAN   FOREST  CODE 

for  every  fagot  load  carried  by  a  man.  In  addition  the  offender 
can  be  sentenced  to  a  maximum  of  five  days'  imprisonment.  If 
trees  sown  or  planted  in  the  forests  less  than  5  years  ago  are 
concerned,  the  penalty  will  be  a  fine  from  3  to  5  francs  ($0.58 
to  $0.96)  per  tree,  without  respect  to  its  size  and  in  addition  a 
maximum  imprisonment  of  15  days. 

In  case  of  a  repetition  of  the  offence,  the  maximum  fine  shall 
always  be  imposed. 

Art.  173.  Those  persons  who  have  lopped,  barked,  or  muti- 
lated trees  in  the  woods  or  forests,  or  who  have  cut  oft"  the  main 
branches,  shall  be  punished  as  if  they  had  cut  them  down  at  the 
stump. 

Art.  174.  Those  persons  who  have  taken  or  removed  cork 
(liege  de  reproduction)-^  from  the  woods  and  forests,  or  those 
who  are  illegally  keeping  it  contrary  to  the  decrees  promulgated 
by  the  Governor  General,  in  accordance  with  Art.  134  of  the 
present  law,  shall  be  condemned  to  a  minimum  fine  of  20  francs 
($3.86)  and  a  maximum  fine  of  40  francs  ($7.72)  for  every  100 
kilos  (220  pounds)  of  cork,  in  proportion  to  the  amount  removed 
or  retained,  also  to  imprisonment  for  a  fortnight  to  six  months. 

Those  persons  who  have  removed  ordinary  cork-oak  bark 
(liege  male  (i))  without  damaging  the  tree  shall  be  punished 
by  fines  which  shall  not  be  less  than  10  centimes  ($0.02)  nor 
exceed  i  franc  ($0.19)  per  tree. 

Those  persons  who,  in  removing  the  cork-oak  bark,  have 
damaged  the  tree,  shall  be  punished  according  to  the  penalties 
enacted  in  Art.  172. 

In  case  of  a  repetition  of  the  offence,  the  maximum  fine  shall 
always  be  enforced. 

Art.  175.  Whoever  shall  remove  windfalls  or  wood  cut  in 
trespass  shall  be  condemned  to  the  same  fines  and  pa>Tnents 
as  if  he  had  felled  it  himself. 

Art.  177.   The  owners  of  animals  trespassing  during  the  day 

in  woods  10  years  and  upwards  in  age  shall  be  condemned  to  a 

fine  of  from  20  centimes  ($0.04)  to  i  franc  ($0.19)  for  a  hog, 

sheep,  or  calf;    from  40  centimes  ($0.08)  to  2  francs  ($0.39)  for 

-^  See  p.  59  for  a  description  of  cork-oak  management. 


PENALTIES   AND    SENTENCES  205 

a  steer,  cow,  goat  or  beast  of  burden;  from  i  franc  ($0.19)  to 
5  francs  ($0.96)  for  a  camel. 

If  the  woods  are  less  than  ten  years  old,  the  fine  shall  be  from 
40  centimes  to  2  francs  ($0.08  to  $0.39)  for  a  hog,  sheep,  or  calf; 
from  80  centimes  to  4  francs  ($0.16  to  $0.77)  for  a  steer,  cow, 
goat,  or  a  beast  of  burden;  from  2  to  10  francs  ($0.39  to  $1.93) 
for  a  camel. 

All  of  those  fines  without  prejudice  as  to  claims  for  damages 
if  there  be  any. 

In  addition  the  herder  may  be  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for 
from  five  days  to  six  months. 

In  case  of  repetition  of  the  offence,  or  if  it  has  been  committed 
in  the  night,  the  maximum  fine  shall  be  enforced. 

Art.  178.  Those  persons  who  have  counterfeited  or  tam- 
pered with  the  brands  of  private  individuals,  or  those  who  have 
made  use  of  brands  that  have  been  tampered  with  or  counter- 
feited, or  those  who  have  illegally  secured  the  real  brands  and 
have  applied  them,  or  made  use  of  them  in  a  manner  prejudicial 
to  the  interests  and  the  rights  of  private  indi\iduals,  shall  be 
punished  by  imprisonment  for  from  three  months  to  two  years. 

Art.  185.  In  all  cases  not  specified  in  the  present  law,  re- 
course shall  be  made  to  the  Penal  Code. 

Re  enforcement  of  penalties,  etc. 

Art.  176.  Where  wood  or  other  productions  of  forest  soil 
have  been  illegally  removed,  damages  may  be  claimed,  over 
and  above  the  fines  for  the  return  of  the  articles  removed,  or 
their  equivalent  value. 

The  saws,  axes,  bill-hooks,  hatches,  and  other  implements  of 
a  similar  nature,  with  which  the  trespassers  and  their  accompHces 
are  provided,  shall  be  confiscated. 

Art.  179.  If  within  the  twelve  months  immediately  preceding 
the  day,  when  an  offence  has  been  committed,  the  offender  has 
already  been  punished  for  a  misdemeanour  or  offence,  this  shall 
be  considered  as  a  repetition  of  the  aforesaid  misdemeanour  or 
offence. 

Art.  180.  In  all  cases  of  award  for  damages,  these  shall  not 
be  less  than  the  fine  imposed  by  the  court. 


2o6  THE   ALGERIAN   FOREST  CODE 

Art.  i8i.  Except  in  the  case  provided  for  in  Art.  126  of  the 
present  law,  Art.  463  of  the  Penal  Code  shall  not  be  applicable 
to  matters  regulated  by  the  present  law,  nor  to  the  law  of 
March  26,  1891. 

Art.  182.  Private  owners  are  entitled  to  restitutions  and 
damages;  fines  and  confiscations  are  always  reserved  for  the 
State. 

Art.  183.  In  all  cases  where  sales  or  auctions  are  declared 
null  and  void,  by  reason  of  fraud  or  collusion,  the  buyer  or 
purchaser,  independent  of  the  fines  and  damages  pronounced 
against  him,  shall  be  sentenced  to  return  the  wood  which  has 
already  been  cut  down,  or  to  pay  the  stumpage  value  of  the 
auction  or  sale  price. 

Art.  184.  The  husbands,  fathers,  mothers,  and  guardians, 
and  generally  speaking  all  foremen  and  employees,  shall  be 
civilly  responsible  for  the  misdemeanours  and  offences  com- 
mitted by  their  wives,  children  who  are  minors,  wards  living 
with  them  and  unmarried,  workmen,  teamsters  and  other  sub- 
ordinates, except  in  the  case  of  legal  redress. 

This  responsibiUty  shall  be  regulated  in  accordance  with  the 
last  paragcaph  of  Art.  1384  of  the  Ci\il  Code,  and  shall  apply 
to  restitutions,  damages,  and  costs. 

Part  X.  —  Execution  of  Judgments 

SECTION   I.  —  JUDGMENTS   CONCERNING  MISDEMEANOURS    AND 
OFFENCES   IN   WOODS   UNDER  FOREST  ADMINISTRATION 

Art.  186.  Judgments  dehvered  at  the  request  of  the  Waters 
and  Forests  Service,  or  after  proceedings  by  a  public  officer, 
shall  be  denoted  by  simple  abstracts  containing  the  name, 
residence  of  the  parties,  and  the  verdict  of  the  court. 

This  notification  will  hold  good  during  the  delays  of  protest 
and  appeal  from  judgments. 

Art.  187.  The  recovery  of  forestry  fines  is  entrusted  to  the 
general  tax  collectors  (receveur  des  contributions  di verses). 
These  collectors  are  hkewise  charged  with  the  recovery  of  res- 
titutions, expenses,  and  damages,  resulting  from  sentences  for 


MISDEMEANOURS   AND   OFFENCES  207 

misdemeanours  and  offences  committed  in  the  woods  under 
forest  jurisdiction. 

The  Waters  and  Forests  Service  can  allow  trespassers  to 
settle  fines,  civil  payments  and  costs,  by  means  of  maintenance 
or  improvement  work  on  rural  roads  (up  to  three  days)  or  in 
the  forests. 

The  general  council  shall  fix  the  value  of  a  day  of  such  labor 
for  each  commune. 

The  labor  can  also  be  furnished  by  piece-work. 

If  this  labor  is  not  forthcoming,  within  the  time  fixed  by  the 
Waters  and  Forests  Service,  the  offenders  shall  be  prosecuted 
according  to  the  previous  sentence. 

Art.  188.  Imprisonment  for  debt  is  exercised  in  matters  con- 
nected with  the  Forest  Code,  according  to  the  law  of  July  22, 
1867.  The  duration  of  such  imprisonment  is  fixed  by  the 
sentence  within  a  limit  of  a  week  to  six  months.  If  the  offender 
has  already  been  previously  convicted,  however,  the  sentence 
can  run  to  a  year. 


SECTION   II.  —  JUDGMENTS   CONCERNING  MISDEMEANOURS    AND 

OFFENCES   COMMITTED   IN   WOODS   WHICH  ARE   NOT 

UNDER   FOREST  ADMINISTRATION 

Art.  189.  Judgments  given  in  favor  of  private  individuals 
for  damages  for  misdemeanours  and  offences  committed  in  their 
woods  shall  be,  at  their  request,  notified  and  executed  accord- 
ing to  the  same  forms  and  acts  of  constraint  as  in  the  case  of 
judgments  dehvered  at  the  request  of  the  Waters  and  Forests 
Service. 

The  recovery  of  fines  shall  be  effected  by  the  general  tax 
collectors. 

Insolvent  offenders  shall  be  permitted  to  discharge  their  debts 
as  already  stated  in  Art.  187,  but  only  in  the  case  of  fines  and 
costs  claimed  by  the  State. 

In  this  case  the  work  of  labor  must  be  done  on  the  rural 
roads  depending  on  the  commune  in  the  territory  where  the 
offence  has  been  committed. 


2o8  THE   ALGERIAN   FOREST  CODE 

Part  XI.  —  General  Provisions 

Art.  190.  The  laws,  regulations,  decrees,  and  orders  laid 
down  as  to  matters  dealt  with  by  the  present  law  are  abrogated 
as  to  every  point  in  which  they  are  contrary  to  the  regulations 
(of  this  Code)  reserving  to  the  Code  the  rights  previously  ac- 
quired, and  especially  the  laws  of  May  21,  1827,  May  4,  1837, 
June  18,  1859,  Nov.  23,  1883  (in  all  matters  concerning  Algeria), 
July  17,  1874,  Dec.  9,  1885.  Likewise  the  regulations,  decrees, 
and  orders  laid  down  as  to  subjects  dealt  with  by  the  present 
law  are  abrogated  in  every  point  in  which  they  are  contrary  to 
its  regulations,  and  reserving  to  the  Code  the  rights  previously 
acquired,  especially  the  regulations  of  Aug.  i,  1827,  June  23, 
1830,  Mar.  10,  1831,  May  20,  1837,  June  10,  1840,  Aug.  24, 
1840,  Dec.  4,  1844,  Mar.  23,  1845,  Feb.  5,  1846,  Jan.  13,  1847 
(in  all  matters  concerning  Algeria),  the  decrees  of  Apr.  2,  1857, 
May  19,  1857,  Oct.  16,  1858,  Dec.  21,  1859,  Dec.  22,  1879, 
Feb.  17,  1888,  Apr.  25,  1888,  Mar.  19,  1891  (in  all  matters 
concerning  Algeria),  the  decrees  of  Oct.  17,  1861,  Aug.  26,  1881, 
and  Aug.  18,  1885. 


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214  CORSICA-SALES    CLAUSES 

SALE   OF   A   SPECIAL   FELLING  AREA27  AUTHORIZED   BY  DECREE 
OF   JUNE   8,  1909,  IN   THE   COMMUNAL   FOREST  OF  ASCO 

The  auction  will  take  place  at  Corte,  Wednesday,  July  25, 
191 1,  at  precisely  9  a.m.  in  the  Town  hall. 

SPECIAL  CLAUSES 

Part  L  —  Auction 

Art.  I.  The  felling  area  comprises  the  whole  of  the  com- 
munal forest  of  Asco  which  is  under  forest  control  and  includes 
the  trees  (marked  on  the  bole  and  root  with  the  federal  marking 
hatchet)  whose  number,  species,  size,  distribution  between  the 
15  forest  compartments,  estimated  yield  in  lumber  and  beams, 
in  fire  wood  and  in  resin  will  be  found  after  the  printed  clauses 
of  this  circular,  which  will  give  a  rough  idea  of  the  forested 
compartments    .    .    . 

Art.  2.  The  sale  will  be  made  in  one  lot,  without  guarantee 
as  to  boundaries,  area,  number  of  trees,  volume,  species,  age, 
condition,  or  quality. 

Art.  3.  The  auction  is  made  under  the  clauses  and  con- 
ditions of  the  general  sales  circular,  approved  Aug.  4,  1909, 
except  as  hereafter  modified. 

Art.  4.  The  sale  will  be  made  at  reduced  prices;  it  will  take 
place  at  Corte. 

Art.  5.  .  .  .  each  bidder  must  deposit  20,000  francs  ($3860) 
before  the  auction    ... 

Art.  6.  Within  20  days  after  the  auction  the  successful 
bidder  will  deposit: 

1.  One-tenth  of  the  purchase  price    .    .    . 

2.  .    .    .    stamp  rights  and  registry  charges    .    .    . 

3.  .    .    .    municipal  levies    .    .    . 

Art.  7.  Within  40  days  after  the  auction  the  purchaser  must 
pay    .    .    .    the  remaining  nine-tenths  of  the  price   .    .    . 

Art.  8.  .  .  .  fiscal  arrangements  enumerated  ...  a  sum 
of  4000  francs  ($772)  is  added  to  the  purchase  price  of  the 
felling  area. 

"  Translated  by  the  writer;  the  portions  omitted  are  of  no  interest  or  applica- 
tion. 


CORSICA-SALES   CLAUSES  215 

Art.  9.   .    .    .    for: 

1.  Cost  of  estimate  made  because  of  the  sale. 

2.  Maintenance  of  official  marks  during  felling. 

3.  Working  plan  of  the  forest  after  exploitation. 

Part  II.  —  Exploitation  and  Removal 

Art.  10.  Under  the  penalties  given  in  Art.  40  of  the  Forest 
Code  of  France,  the  exploitation  and  the  removal  over  the  en- 
tire felling  area  must  be  completely  finished  within  a  period  of 
18  years  counting  from  the  auction  day.  The  compartments 
will  be  cut  over  in  the  order  decided  upon  by  the  purchaser, 
and  will  theoretically  each  correspond  to  a  separate  sale.  Yet 
several  compartments  may  be  exploited  simultaneously,  but  the 
logging  of  a  compartment  cannot  be  commenced  until  the 
purchaser  obtains  from  the  inspector  for  this  particular  com- 
partment a  special  cutting  permit  .  .  .  stating  that  he  has 
complied  with  all  the  requirements  which  are  set  by  Art.  18  of 
the  general  circular. 

Dating  from  the  delivery  of  this  compartment  permit,  which 
the  purchaser  must  procure,  there  will  be  three  years  for  the 
felling  and  removal  of  the  wood  from  the  compartment  and 
under  no  circumstances  can  the  time  for  removal  exceed  the 
period  of  18  years  fixed  above  for  the  removal  of  the  whole  sale. 

On  the  other  hand  extensions  of  time  may  be  granted,  in 
case  of  accident,  for  good  and  unforeseen  causes,  under  the  con- 
ditions cited  by  Arts.  29  and  44  of  the  general  circular;  but 
the  aggregate  of  these  extensions  cannot  in  any  case  exceed  two 
years  for  any  one  compartment. 

The  stumps  shall  be  checked  by  compartments,  in  the  order 
of  expiration  of  the  term  for  felling  figured  for  each  from  the 
date  of  the  cutting  permit. 

Art.  II.  The  imprint  of  the  federal  marking  hatchet  on  the 
stumps  of  trees  designated  for  felling  must  be  pointed  out  by 
the  purchaser  when  the  stumps  are  checked. 

If  it  is  shown  that  these  imprints  have  a  tendency  to  become 


2l6 


CORSICA-SALES   CLAUSES 


obliterated  in  the  last  compartments  to  be  cut  over,  the  trees 
which  bear  them  shall  be  freshly  stamped  with  the  federal 
mark  in  one  or  more  operations,  carried  out  by  the  Waters  and 
Forests  Service,  always  with  the  purchaser  or  his  representa- 
tive (present). 

Art.  12.  The  volume  of  the  wood  to  be  delivered  to  the 
purchaser  in  the  compartments  during  exploitation  and  during 
the  regular  felling  term,  in  accordance  with  Arts.  21,  31,  36, 
40,  and  45  of  this  circular,  shall  be  calculated  on  the  basis  of 
the  diameters  of  the  trees  and  in  accordance  with  the  following 
volume  table: 


The  o.io-metre  (3.9-inch)  diameter 
class  will  include  all  the  stems  measuring 
from  0.06  to  0.15  metre  (2.4  to  5.9  inches) 
inclusive  at  breast  height  (1.30  metres 
(1.4 yards)  above  the  ground);  that  of  0.20 
metre  (7.9  inches)  trees  will  include  all  the 
stems  measuring  from  0.16  to  0.25  metre 
(6.3  to  9.8  inches)  in  diameter  inclusive, 
and  so  on  following. 


The  volume  of  wood  dehvered  in  accordance  with  Articles 
21,  31,  and  40  of  the  general  circular  will  be  paid  for  at  the 
average  price  of  dimension  stuff  resulting  from  the  sum  total 
of  the  auction,  that  is  to  say,  at  the  price  obtained  by  dividing 
the  grand  total  of  the  auction  (both  sales  price  and  charges) 
by  the  total  volume  of  the  products  estimated  in  board  and 
dimension  stuff  in  accordance  with  Article  i. 

The  volume  of  wood  dehvered  in  accordance  with  Arts.  36 
and  45  of  the  general  circular  (reserved  trees)  shall  be  paid  for 
at  the  same  price  be  it  more  or  less. 

However,  these  prices  shall  not  be  appHed  in  the  calculation 
of  the  amounts  due  except  to  wood  of  merchantable  size  and 
quality  or  to  products  of  merchantable  value,  which  may  be 
used  by  the  purchaser. 


D.B.  H. 

Volume 

metres  (inches). 

cubic  metres  (cu.  ft.) 

o.io    (3.94) 

0.03        (1.06) 

0.20   (7.87) 

0.13        (4-59) 

0.30  (II.8I) 

0-35     (12.35) 

0.40  (15.75) 

0.75     (26.48) 

0.50  (19.68) 

1.30  •(45-90) 

0.60  (23.62) 

2.15     (75-92) 

0.70  (27.56) 

3.25  (114-77) 

0.80  (31.50) 

4-35  (153-61) 

0.90  (35.43) 

6.05  (213.64) 

i.oo  (39.37) 

7.60  (268.39) 

1. 10  (43-31) 

8.9s  (316.05) 

1.20  (47-24) 

11.60  (409.64) 

1.30  (51.18) 

13.80  (487.33) 

1.40  (55.12) 

16.20  (572.08) 

1.50  (59.07) 

19.00  (670.97) 

1.60  (62.99) 

22.60  (798.10)    , 

CORSICA-SALES   CLAUSES  217 

The  cost  of  stamping  and  registering  papers  relative  to  these 
deliveries  shall  be  at  the  cost  of  the  purchaser. 

Art.  13.  The  sale  is  made  under  the  actual  conditions  pre- 
vailing, and  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service,  as  well  as  the  com- 
mune of  Asco,  decKnes  all  responsibility  because  of  delays 
which  may  retard  the  construction  of  the  parish  road  of  Asco. 

The  removal  will  take  place  along  existing  roads  or  by  any 
other  ways  and  means  created  by  the  purchaser,  that  is  to  say: 
mule  trails,  secondary  roads,  suitable  for  carts,  skidding  trails  or 
sKdes,  installation  of  Decauville  Hnes,  roll  ways,  incHned  planes 
or  cables,  estabhshed  in  virtue  of  permits  which  shall  be  re- 
quested under  the  conditions  given  in  Art.  33  of  the  general 
"  cahier  de  charges." 

In  this  respect  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service  will  give  all 
possible  facilities,  but  because  of  a  refusal  the  purchaser  cannot 
base  claims  for  a  reduction  in  the  purchase  price  or  any  in- 
demnity whatsoever,  even  if  the  difficulty  (of  logging)  was 
thereby  increased,  or  in  case  of  the  impossibility  of  removal. 

Art.  14.  The  purchaser  shall  bear  all  costs  of  the  improve- 
ment or  construction  on  existing  logging  roads  or  on  any  he 
may  be  authorized  to  establish.  The  betterments  will  revert 
without  payment  to  the  commune  of  Asco  after  exploitation 
is  finished.  The  same  will  apply  to  all  the  ties  laid  under 
Decauville  lines  or  on  sled  roads,  bridges,  and  fences  (con- 
structed) of  wood,  dams,  flood  gates  including  their  fittings 
which  shall  become  at  the  same  time  and  without  payment 
the  property  of  the  Asco  commune.  The  total  equipment 
only  can  be  removed  by  the  purchaser. 

Art.  15.  Every  facility  shall  also  be  accorded  the  purchaser 
by  the  Waters  and  Forests  Service  for  establishing  in  the  forest 
under  the  conditions  prescribed  by  Art.  31  of  the  general  cir- 
cular, huts,  shanties,  workshops,  and  mills  necessary  for  the 
requirements  of  exploitation  either  of  wood  or  gum,  and  to 
utilize,  if  there  are  any,  streams  for  the  generation  of  power. 

The  purchaser  shall  be  granted  a  period  of  six  months  after 
the  exploitation  is  finished  (within  which)  to  remove  the  lumber 
or  other  material  from  houses  erected,  as  well  as  the  tool  equip- 


2l8  CORSICA-SALES   CLAUSES 

ment  and  furnishings;  but  after  this  period  the  commune  of 
Asco  shall  become  the  owner,  and  do  as  it  pleases  with  all  build- 
ings and  material  which  may  not  have  been  removed  by  the 
purchaser. 

Art.  1 6.  The  responsibility  decreed  by  Art.  45  of  the  Forest 
Code  will  be  in  force  in  compartments  during  exploitation, 
from  the  time  the  special  permit  for  felling  in  these  compart- 
ments is  given  until  they  are  checked  over,  or  until  the  release 
is  given  the  purchaser. 

Moreover  no  reduction  in  the  price  of  the  sale  nor  any  refund 
can  be  claimed  because  of  trespass  damage  committed  on  trees 
sold  comprised  in  the  compartments  remaining  for  exploitation. 

Art.  17.  The  purchaser  cannot  raise  any  claim  for  damages 
because  of  windfall  or  the  death  of  trees,  which  shall  have  taken 
place  since  the  marking  among  trees  designated  and  marked  for 
the  sale. 

Part  111.  —  Tapping 

Art.  18.  The  purchaser  shall  have  the  privilege  of  tapping 
trees  marked  for  felling. 

Art.  19.  In  the  compartments  opened  for  felling  and  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  exploitation  the  tapping  will  be  conducted 
at  the  option  of  the  purchaser  who  can  work  the  trees  as  desired. 

For  this  purpose  a  special  tapping  to  death  permit  will  be 
included  in  the  logging  permit,  on  the  preliminary  written  re- 
quest from  the  purchaser,  and  in  this  event  the  period  for  the 
exploitation  and  removal  for  each  compartment  shall  be  fixed 
at  5  years,  commencing  from  the  date  of  the  cutting  permit 
(and)  without  any  extension  permissible. 

Art.  20.  In  the  compartments  not  yet  opened  for  felling, 
but  which  have  already  been  settled  for,  ...  the  purchaser 
shall  have  in  addition  the  right  to  tap  alive  the  trees  marked 
for  felling  by  making  a  written  request  to  the  inspector,  who 
after  seeing  the  remittance  receipt,  will  deliver  to  him  a  special 
permit  for  tapping  alive.  This  permit  will  be  valid  up  to  the 
time  (the  compartment)  is  opened  for  regular  felling  and  com- 
mencing with  the  date  of  the  felling  permit  the  purchaser  will 


CORSICA-SALES   CLAUSES  219 

have  5  years,  as  given  above,  to  tap  to  death  if  he  wishes,  and 
to  entirely  finish  the  exploitation  and  removal  in  each  com- 
partment. 

Art.  21.  The  tapping  alive  in  the  compartments  not  yet 
opened  for  felling  must  conform  to  the  following  rules: 

The  trees  to  be  tapped  aHve  shall  be  cut  with  only  one  face 
at  a  time  which  shall  be  begun  above  the  root  collar  and  always 
continued  vertically.  The  face  may  be  raised  during  the  first 
year  it  is  cut  to  60  centimetres  (23  inches),  and  each  of  the 
following  years  70  centimetres  (27  inches)  provided  that  the 
total  height  of  the  face  does  not  exceed  3.40  metres  (3.7 
yards). 

The  width  of  the  face  should  not  exceed  9  centimetres  (3.5 
inches)  for  the  first  two  years  they  are  cut,  8  centimetres 
(3  inches)  commencing  with  the  third  year  and  7  centimetres 
(2.7  inches)  during  the  last  year. 

Their  depth  must  not  exceed  i  centimetre  (0.4  inch),  meas- 
ured from  a  cord  stretched  from  one  side  of  the  scar  to  the 
other,  beginning  with  the  cambium. 

The  successive  faces  shall  be  cut  so  far  as  possible  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  tree  perpendicular  to  each  other. 

The  old  faces  shall  be  abandoned  no  matter  what  their  height 
may  be. 

However,  in  the  first  compartments  in  which  the  period  for 
tapping  alive  may  be  less  than  5  years,  the  width  of  the  faces 
or  height  may  be  modified  by  the  conservator  on  the  request 
of  the  purchaser. 

Art.  22.  Every  tree  worked  contrary  to  the  preceding  rules 
in  compartments  not  yet  opened  for  cutting  will  be  considered 
as  having  been  mutilated  and  (therefore)  falling  under  the  force 
of  Arts.  192  and  196  of  the  Forest  Code  (of  France). 

The  purchaser  will  incur  the  same  penalties  every  time  (in 
order  to  conduct  the  gum  into  the  cup)  he  shall  cut  at  the  base 
of  the  trees  tapped  alive  circular  incisions  deep  enough  to  hit 
the  wood. 

Art.  23.  The  tapping  alive  will  only  be  allowed  from  March 
I   to  October  31   of  each  year,  but  the  purchaser  can   com- 


220  CORSICA-SALES   CLAUSES 

mence  to  clean  off  the  (bark  of  the)  pines  which  are  to  be  tapped 
and  place  the  nails  from  the  first  of  February. 

He  can  also  collect  resin  barrels  up  to  the  15th  of  December 
each  year  during  the  period  for  tapping  alive. 

Art.  24.  The  purchaser  will  have  the  privilege  of  barking 
(up  to  4  metres  (4  yards)  in  height)  the  trees  to  be  tapped  aHve 
in  the  compartments  not  yet  opened.  He  must  immediately 
dispose  of  the  products  of  this  work. 

Art.  25.  In  the  case  of  tapping  operations  the  exploitation 
and  removal  of  the  wood  or  resin  must  be  completely  finished 
within  a  maximum  term  of  20  years  for  the  whole  cutting  area 
counting  from  the  day  of  the  auction  and  without  any  extension 
possible. 

Part  IV.  —  Miscellaneous  Rules 

Art.  26.  The  Waters  and  Forests  Service  and  the  commune 
of  Asco  do  not  hold  themselves  responsible  for: 

1.  Fires  and  acts  of  Providence  (storms,  floods,  avalanches, 

sHdes,  etc.)  which  may  take  place  in  the  forest  during 
the  cutting  period. 

2.  Delays  which  may  affect  the  construction  of  the  Asco 

parish  road. 

These  occurrences  will  give  under  no  circumstances  any  in- 
demnity, deduction  or  reduction  whatever  in  the  sale  price. 

Art.  27.  Of  the  total  number  of  workmen  employed- by  the 
contractor  either  for  exploitation,  handhng  or  tapping,  the  pro- 
portion of  foreign  laborers  must  not  exceed  a  percentage  of  90. 

Art.  28.  The  contractor  must  send  to  the  Waters  and  Forests 
agent,  chief  of  cantonment  at  Bastia,  on  every  request,  the 
complete  Hst  of  the  workmen  employed  on  the  woodyards  and 
workshops  of  the  felhng  area.  The  conservator  can,  on  the 
recommendation  of  the  local  agents,  strike  from  this  list  those 
persons  who  have  committed  any  forest  trespass,  or  those  con- 
victed either  of  poaching  or  insult  or  insubordination  against 
an  ofi&cial. 

Approved  at  Paris  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture, 
January  21,  igio. 


EQUIVALENTS  221 

ADDITIONAL  LITERATURE 

Tunisia 

1.  Arthur  White.     Le  developpement  de  I'Afrlque.     Bruxelles.     1894. 

2.  Servonnet.     Le  golfe  de  Gabes  en  1888.     Paris.     1888. 

3.  Guillochon.     Traite    pratique    d'horticulture    pour    de    nord    de   I'Afrique. 

Tunis.     1907. 

4.  Bulletin  de  direction  de  I'agriculture  et  du  commerce  et  de  la  colonisation, 

Tunis.     1903-1908. 

5.  Ch.  Degreaux.     Notice  sur  las  forets  de  la  Khroumirie.     Tunis.     1905. 

6.  Direction  des  forets.     Notice  sur  les  forets  de  la  Tunisie.     Tunis.     1889. 

7.  Compte  rendu  de  la  direction  generale  des  travaux  publics.     Paris.     1898- 

1908. 

8.  Duveyrier.     La  Tunisie.     Tunis.     1881. 

Algeria 

1.  Gautier.     Sahara  Algerien.     Paris.     1908. 

2.  Chudeau.     Sahara  Soudanais.     Paris.     1909. 

3.  Battandier.     Du  role  du  boisement  dans  I'avenir  de  I'Algerie.     Paris.     1898. 

4.  Combe.     Les  forets  de  I'Algerie.     Alger.     1889. 

5.  Lefebvre.     Les  forets  de  I'Algerie.     Alger.     Mustapha.     1900. 

6.  Gouvernement   general  de  I'Algerie.     Programm£   du   reboisement.     Alger. 

1885. 

7.  Gouvernement  general  de  I'Algerie.     Alger.     1904. 

8.  Maurice  Wahl.     L'Algerie.     Paris.     1882. 

EQUIVALENTS 

The  following  equivalents  have  been  used  in  conversions: 

I  pound  (avordupois)  =  0.45359  kilogram 

I  pound  (Troy)  =  0.37324  kilogram 

I  millimetre  =  0.03937  inch 

I  centimetre  =  0.3937  inch 

I  metre  =  3.28083  feet 

I  metre  =   1.0936 11  yards 

1  kilometre  =  0.62137  mile 

I  square  millimetre  =   0.00155  square  inch 

I  square  centimetre  =   0.1550  square  inch 

I  square  metre  =  10.764  square  feet 

I  square  metre  =   1.196  square  yards 

I  square  kilometre  =  0.3861  square  mile 

I  hectare  =   2.471  acres 

I  cu.  millimetre  =  0.000061  cubic  inch 

I  cu.  centimetre  =  0.061  cubic  inch 

I  cu.  metre  =  35.314  cu.  feet 

I  cu.  metre  =   1.3079  cu.  yards 

I  litre  =   1.05668  quarts  (liquid) 


222 


EQUIVALENTS 

I  litre 

=  0.26417  gallon  (liquid) 

I  litre 

=  0.9081  quart  (dry) 

I  litre 

=  0.1 133 1  peck 

I  hectolitre 

=   2.83774  bushels 

I  gram 

=   15-4324  grains 

I  gram 

=  0.03527  ounce  (avordupois) 

I  gram 

=  0.03215  ounce  (Troy) 

I  kilogram 

=   2.20462  pounds  (avordupois) 

I  kilogram 

=   2.67923  pounds  (Troy) 

I  fraac 

=   19.3  cents  (current  rate  in  19 12-13) 

PROPERTY  LIBRAIV^ 
N.  C  State  Co&.^re 


?ROPFJ?Tr  mURT 


INDEX 


Abies  pectinata.     See  Fir 

Acacia,  planting  of,  in  Algeria,  79,  84 

in  Tunisia,  36 
Acer.     See  Maple 

Acorns,  gathering  of,  in  Algeria,  187 
sowing  of,  in  Algeria,  82-83,  86 
in  Tunisia,  42 
Administration  of  forests.     See  Forest 

administration 
Administrative  units,  size  of,  in  Algeria, 
103 
in  Corsica,  124 
in  France,  103 

See  also  "Chefferies" 
Aeration  of  seedlings,  in  Algeria,  7,  87 
"Afares"  oak.     See  Oak,  "afares" 
Agricultural  crops,  in  Tunisia,  14,  15 
Agricultural  land,  extent  of,  in  Algeria, 

54 
Agricultural  settlement,  in  Algeria,  56 

in  Tunisia,  18 
Aitone  forest,  Corsica,  working  plan  for, 

132-133,  137-138 
Ajaccio,  Corsica,  administrative  center, 

2,  123 
Alder,  occurrence  of,  in  Corsica,  123 

in  Tunisia,  14 
Aleppo  pine.     See  Pine,  aleppo 
Alfa,  collection  of,  in  Algeria,  89 
occurrence  of,  in  Tunisia,  40 
sales  of,  in  Algeria,  175 
Algeria,  chapter  on,  46-110 
conclusions  and  summary,  4-7 

See  also  specific  subjects  in  their 
alphabetical  positions 
Algeria  —  Commission  d'etudes  forest- 
ieres.     "Rapport,"    referred   to, 
51,  57,  58,  72,  loi,  103 


Algeria  —  Gouvernement        general. 

"Programme   du    reboisement," 

referred  to,  221 
"Statistique   generale   de  I'Algerie," 

referred  to,  57,  90 
Algerian  forest  code,  referred  to,  4,  23, 

53,  75 
summary  of,  109- no 
translation  of,  161-208 
Algerian  oak.     See  Oak,  zeen 
Algiers,  Algeria,  administrative  center, 
2,  5,  103 
forest  museum  at,  88 
Alnus.     See  Alder 
Aran,  Algeria,  reforestation  at,  86 
Arbute,  occurrence  of,  in  Algeria,  55 
Areas,  of  Algeria,  2,  47 
of  Corsica,  2,  113 
of  Tunisia,  2,  10 
Asco  timber  sale,  Corsica,  description  of, 
214-220 
reference  to,  146-147 
Ash,  occurrence  of,  in  Algeria,  56 
in  Corsica,  123 
in  Tunisia,  14 
planting  of,  in  Algeria,  79 
Aspen,  occurrence  of,  in  Corsica,  123 
Assassination    of     forest     officers,     in 

Algeria,  103 
Auction  frauds,  penalties  for,  in  Algeria, 

167-168 
Auctions,     in     communal     forests,     in 
Algeria,  181-182 
in  Corsica,  214-215 
in  state  forests,  in  Algeria,  166-169, 
174-175 
Azerolier,    occurrence    of,    in   Tunisia, 


2  24 


INDEX 


Backfiring,  objections  to,  in  Algeria,  loi 

regulations  regarding,  in  Algeria,  194 

Bainen,    Algeria,     reforestation    at,    7, 

83 
Ball  planting,  in  Algeria,  6,  78,  86 

in  Tunisia,  3 
Bamboo  tubes,  in  nursery  practice,  in 

Tunisia,  42-43 
Baraban,  Leopold  V.,  reference  to,  31 
Bark  peeling,  cost  of,  in  Tunisia,  16 
methods  of,  in  Algeria,  61 
regulations  regarding,  in  Algeria,  171, 
204 
in  Corsica,  142,  220 
time  of,  in  Algeria,  60 
in  Tunisia,  16 
See  also  Tan  bark 
Battandier,  Jules  A.,  on  "Du  r6Ie  du 
boisement  dans  I'avenir  de  I'Al- 
gerie,"  221 
Bavella  forest,   Corsica,   working  plan 

for,  128-129,  137 
Beech,  distribution  of,  in  Corsica,  115, 
118.  121 
uses  of,  in  Corsica,  121 
Betula.     See  Birch 
Bibliography,  221 

Birch,  occurrence  of,  in  Corsica,  123 
Birds,    damage    by,    in    Algeria,     78, 

82-83 
Bizerte,  Tunisia,  dunes  near,  36 
Blanks,  leasing  of,  in  Algeria,  175 
reforesting  of,  in  Algeria,  78 
situation  of,  in  Corsica,  115 
Blight  disease  of  chestnut.     See  Chest- 
nut blight  disease 
Bon  Rahma  forest,  Algeria,  reforesta- 
tion of,  86 
Bonuses,  for  Algerian  service,  106-107 
Boundaries    of    forests.       See    Forest 

boundaries 
Boundary    lines,    construction     of,    in 
Algeria,  94 
obliteration  of,  in  Algeria,  188 
See  also  Fire  lines 
Boutilly,  v.,  on  "Recueil  de  la  legisla- 
tion forestiere  Algerienne,"   102 
reference  to,  6,  78 


Boxes,  of  aleppo  pine,  in  Tunisia,  17 
Branding  stock,  regulations  regarding. 

in  Algeria,  174 
Brands,  illegal  use  of,  in  Algeria,  205 
Bridge  and  road  service,  Algeria,  rights 

of,  189 
Bridges,  construction  of,  in  Corsica,  143, 
148, 159 
in  timber   sales  operations,   Algeria, 
166 
Brush,  for  erosion   correction,  in    Tu- 
nisia, 38 
for  seedling  protection,  in  Algeria,  82 
included  in  timber  sales,  in  Corsica, 
141 
Brush   burning,   regulations   regarding, 
in  Algeria,  92,  190 
in  Corsica,  144,  155 
Brush    lands,     administration    of,     in 
Algeria,  162 
cause  of,  in  Algeria,  55 
clearing  of,  in  Algeria,  6,  79 
extent  of,  in  Corsica,  113,  135 
planting  of,  in  Algeria,  6 
Brushing.     See  Clearing 
Bryony,      black,     occiurrence     of,     in 

Tunisia,   14 
"Bundles    of    management,"    descrip- 
tion of,  in  Algeria,  71 
reference  to,  5 
Burning  of  brush.     See  Brush  burning 
Burning    of    charcoal.      See    Charcoal 
burning 

Caird,  I.  H.,  on  "The  History  of  Cor- 
sica," 111-112 
Callistris  quadrivalvis.     See  Thuya 
Camel  grazing,  in  communal  forests,  in 
Algeria,  183 
in  state  forests,  in  Algeria,  178 
Camps  near  forests,  law  regarding,  in 
Algeria,  195 
in  Tunisia,  23 
Canals,  in  timber  sales  operations,  in 

Algeria,  166 
Carob  tree,  occurrence  of,  in  Tunisia,  15 
planting  of,  in  Algeria,  79,  86 
in  Tunisia,  41-42 


INDEX 


225 


Castanea  vesca.    See  Chestnut 
Casuarina,  planting  of,  in  Tunisia,  36 
Cattle  grazing,  amount  of,  in  Corsica, 
156 
fees  for,  in  Algeria,  88-89 
in  state  forests,  in  Algeria,  177-178 
Cedar,  coffin  from,  in  Algeria,  64 
distribution  of,  in  Algeria,  54-56 
management  of,  in  Algeria,  64-65 
planting  of,  in  Algeria,  78-79 
sales  of,  in  Algeria,  57 
thinnings  in,  Algeria,  64-65 
Cedrus  atlantica.     See  Cedar 
Ceratonia  siliqua.     See  Carob  tree 
Charcoal,  from  aleppo  pine,  in  Tunisia, 
17 
from  holm  oak,  in  Corsica,  121,  135 
from  zeen  oak  in  Tunisia,  17 
sales  of,  in  Algeria,  58 
Charcoal   burning,   regulations   regard- 
ing, in  Algeria,  190 
Charvet,  Joseph  L.,  reference  to,  30,  45 
Chazalette,  Henri,  reference  to,  86 
"Chefferies,"  system  of,  in  Algeria,  5, 

53,  104 
Chestnut,   distribution  of,   in   Corsica, 
115,  122 
for  tannin,  in  Corsica,  122 
Chestnut  blight  disease,  in  Corsica,  122 
Chestnuts,  as  food,  in  Corsica,  122 
Chudeau,  R.,  on  "Sahara  Soudanais," 

221 

Cinto,  Monte,  in  Corsica,  113 
Cistus,  occurrence  of,  in  Algeria,  55 
Classification  of  land.     See  Land  classi- 
fication 
Clearing,   of   brush   lands,   in   Algeria, 
6,  86 
of  fire  lines,  in  Algeria,  7,  95 
in  Corsica,  155 
in  Tunisia,  18,  27-28,  30-31 
Clearing  regulations,  in  private  forests, 

Algeria,  185-186 
Climate,  of  Algeria,  48-49 
of  Corsica,  113 
of  Tunisia,  11-12 

See    also    Humidity;     Rainfall; 
Temperature;   Winds 


Coffin,  from  cedar,  in  Algeria,  64 
Collection  of  seed.     See  Seeds,  collection 

of 
Colonization,  increase  of,  in  Tunisia,  14 
Combe,  Ad.,  on  "Les  forets  de  I'Algerie" 

221 
Communal  forests,  administration  of,  in 
Algeria,  161,  180-183 
extent  of,  in  Algeria,  56 
grazing  of,  in  Corsica,  156 
species  found  in,  Corsica,  118 
subdivision  of,  in  Algeria,  181 
Compartment  letters,   painting   of,    in 

Corsica,  159 
Cones,  aleppo  pine,  opening  of,  82 

lodgepole  pine,  opening  of,  82 
Conifers,  on  fire  lines,  in  Tunisia,  30 
Constantine,     Algeria,     administrative 
center,  2,  5,  103 
fire  lines  in,  98 
reforestation  at,  7,  82-83 
Contract    conditions,    in    clearing    fire 
lines,  in  Tunisia,  31 
in  timber  sales,  in  Corsica,  141-145, 

217 
in  turpentining,  in  Algeria,  62 
Controller.     See  Inspector 
Coppice,  extent  of,  in  Tunisia,  15 
management  of,  in  Corsica,  135 
yield  of,  in  New  England,  6 
Coppicing,  of  oak,  in  Algeria,  65 
in  Tunisia,  24 
of  olive,  in  Tunisia,  24 
Cork,  collection  of,  in  Algeria,  60,  68, 
74-75 
in  Tunisia,  21,  23 
price  of,  in  Algeria,  66,  75 

in  Tunisia,  16-17 
sales  of,  in  Algeria,  6,  57-58,  73-74 
in  Corsica,  121 
in  Tunisia,  14,  16-17,  21 
thefts  of,  in  Algeria,  204 
Cork-oak,  amount  of,  in  Algeria,  58 
in  Tunisia,  16 
cuttings  in,  Algeria,  6,  67 
distribution  of,  in  Algeria,  54-56 
in  Corsica,  115,  118,  121-122 
in  Tunisia,  12,  14 


226 


INDEX 


Cork-oak,  fire  lines  in,  Algeria,  96-97 
in  Tunisia,  27,  30 
fire  protection  in,  Algeria,  91 

in  Tunisia,  2,  26-28 
for  fire  wood,  in  Algeria,  61 

in  Tunisia,  16 
for  tannin,  in  Algeria,  61,  67 

in  Tunisia,  16 
management  of,  in  Algeria,  50,  58-61 
in  Corsica,  1 21-122 
in  Tunisia,  2-3,  16-17,  20,  22-24 
planting  of,  in  Algeria,  78-79,  82-83, 

86 
privately  owned,  in  Algeria,  56,  73 
resistance  to  heat,  in  Algeria,  6-7 
rotation  for,  in  Tunisia,  24 
sales  of,  in  Algeria,  4,  50,  72-73 
sprouting  of,  in  Algeria,  61 
working  plan  for,  in  Algeria,  66-68 
yield  of,  in  Algeria,  5-6,  67 
Cork-oak     production,     study     of,     in 

Algeria,  87 
Corn,   Indian,   for  seedling  protection, 

in  Tunisia,  43 
Coronado  national  forest,  Ariz.,  admin- 
istration of,  5 
"Corse  (La)  agricole,"  reference  to,  122 
Corsica,  chapter  on,  111-160 
conclusions  and  summary,  8-9 

See  also  specific  subjects  in  their 
alphabetical  positions 
Corsican  pine.     See  Pine,  Corsican 
Crataegus  azarolus.     See  Azerolier 
Crates,  from  aleppo  pine,  in  Tunisia,  17 
Crops. .   See  Agricultural  crops 
"Culee  noire"  method  of  coppicing,  in 

Algeria,  65 
Cultivated  lands  as  fire  lines,  in  Tunisia, 

3,18 
Cupressus  sempervirens.     See  Cypress 
Cuttings,  areas  reserved  from,  in  Al- 
geria, 165 
excessive,  in  Algeria,  55 
in  Corsica,  8,  115,  137-139 
in  Tunisia,  15 
in  aleppo  pine,  in  Tunisia,  23 
in  cork-oak,  in  Algeria,  6,  67 
in  Corsican  pine,  in  Corsica,  8 


Cuttings  in  holm  oak,  in  Tunisia,  23 
in  reserved  forests,  in  Tunisia,  3,  23 
in  Valdoniello  forest,  Corsica,  135 
in  zeen  oak.  in  Tunisia,  23-24 
regeneration,  in  Algeria,  63-64 

in  Corsica,  8,  132,  135 
regulations  regarding,  in  Algeria,  76. 
181-182 
in  Corsica,  141,  215 
Cypress,  occurrence  of,  in  Tunisia,  15 
planting  of,  in  Algeria,  79,  84 

Damage    to    trees,    from    logging,    in 

Corsica,  142,  150 
Dams,   for   erosion   correction,   in  Tu- 
nisia, 37-38 
Date  palm.     Ste  Palm,  date 
Dead  wood,  included  in  timber  sales, 

in  Corsica,  141 
Debris.     See  Brush 

Debt,  imprisonment  for,  in  Algeria,  207 
Degreau.x,    Ch.,    on    "Notice    sur    les 

forets  de  la  Khroumirie,"  221 
Delacourcelle,  Louis  A.,  reference  to,  41 
Destruction   of    forests.         See    Forest 

destruction 
Diary  of  a  forest  ranger,  quotation  from, 

21 
Discipline,  of  forest  officers,  in  Algeria, 

108-109 
Diseases    of    chestnut.     See    Chestnut 

blight  disease 
Diss,  for  thatching,  in  Algeria,  195 
Ditch    method,     of    reforestation,    in 

Algeria,  84 
Ditches,     for    erosion    correction,     in 

Tunisia,  36-37,  40 
Djerid  oases,  Tunisia,  2,  18 
Dorsale  Mts.,  Tunisia,  position  of,  11 
Drought  resistant  trees,  in  Algeria,  54 

in  Tunisia,  36,  40-41 
Dry  season,  in  Algeria,  48 
in  Corsica,  113 
in  Tunisia,  3 
Du£f,  Miss  Nora,  translator  of  Algerian 

code,  161 
Dumouriez,  General  Charles  Franfois, 

reference  to,  112 


INDEX 


227 


Dundas,  Henry,  reference  to.  112 

Dunes.     See  Sand  dunes 

Duveyrier,  Henri,  on  "La  Tunisie,"  221 

Ecological  studies,  in  Algeria,  88 
"Ecumoire"  system  of  cutting,  in  Cor- 
sica, 133 
El-Feidja,   Tunisia,    forest   administra- 
tion at,  21 
El-Hamma  oasis,  Tunisia.  34,  38 
Elm,  occurrence  of,  in  Algeria,  56 
El-Ouidan  oasis,  Tunisia,  34,  40 
English  conquest,  of  Corsica,  in 
Equivalents,  table  of.  221-222 
Erosion,  damage  from,  in  Tunisia,  s^,  36 
protection  from,  in  Corsica,  159 
in  Tunisia,  2-3,  23,  36-40 
Eucalyptus,  planting  of,  in  Algeria,  83 

in  Tunisia,  36,  40-42 
Evergreens,  large  number  of,  in  Algeria, 

54 
Excavations,  regulations  regarding,  in 

Algeria,  189 
Expenditures.     Sec  Forest  expenditures 
Experiment  stations,  in  Algeria,  87,  105 
Expropriation    of    lands,    in    Algeria, 

179-180,183 
Extensive  forestry,  value  of,  1-2 

Fagus  sylvatica.     See  Beech 
Failures,  of  reforestation,  i n  Algeria,  82 ,  84 
in  Corsica,  153 
in  Tunisia,  43 
Federal  forests.     See  State  forests 
Fellings.     See  Cuttings 
Fences,   sand,   construction  of,  in  Tu- 
nisia, 34-35 
Fines,  collection  of,  in  Algeria,  206-207 

See  also  Penalties 
Fir,    distribution   of,    in    Corsica,    115, 

121-122 
Fire,  causes  of,  in  Algeria,  66,  91 
in  Corsica,  155 
in  Tunisia,  26 
damage  from,  in  Algeria,  50,  55-56, 
61,91 
in  Corsica,  8,  63,  112,  115,  155 
in  Tunisia,  15 


Fire,  danger  of,  in  Corsica,  123,  130 
in  Tunisia,  14,  27-28 
in  or  near  forests,  law  regarding,  in 
Algeria,  190-19 1 
in  Tunisia.  2,  23,  25 
in  Vizzavona  forest,  Corsica,  132 
penalties  for  setting,  in  Algeria,  191 
Fire  fighters,  conscription  of,  in  Algeria, 
7,92,  192 
direction  of,  in  Algeria,  194 
Fire  line  record,  sample  of,  in  Algeria. 

IOC 

Fire  lines,  along  railways,  in  Algeria,  94, 
194 
in  Tunisia,  3,  23,  27,  30 
clearing  of,  in  Algeria,  7,  95.  99 
in  Corsica,  155 
in  Tunisia,  18,  27-28,  30-31 
cost  of,  in  Tunisia,  29 
cultivated  lands  as,  in  Tunisia,  3,  18 
in  aleppo  pine,  in  Algeria,  96-97 
in  cork-oak,  in  Algeria,  96-97 

in  Tunisia,  27,  30 
in  holm  oak,  in  Algeria,  97 
in  plantations,  in  Algeria,  83 
in  thuya,  in  Algeria,  96-97 
in  zeen  oak,  in  Tunisia,  30 
location  of,  in  Tunisia,  29 
necessity  for,  in  Algeria,  loi 

in  Tunisia,  29 
regulations  regarding,  in  Algeria,  91, 

93-95,  191 
table  of,  in  Algeria,  95-98 
width  of,  in  Algeria,  94,  98 
in  Corsica,  155 
in  Tunisia,  29-30 
Fire  notices,  in  railway  cars,  in  Tunisia,  27 
Fire  protection,  by  settlers,  in  Algeria, 
192 
in  Tunisia,  3 
in  aleppo  pine,  in  Algeria,  91 

in  Tunisia,  2 
in  cork-oak,  in  Algeria,  91 

in  Tunisia,  2,  26-28 
methods  of,  in  Corsica,  154-155 

in  Tunisia,  24-31 
problems  of,  in  Algeria,  7 
in  Tunisia,  28 


2  28 


INDEX 


Fire    regulations,    in    Algeria,    91-93, 
172,  191-194 

in  Corsica,  142 

in  Tunisia,  22 
Fire  reports,  preparation  of,  in  Algeria, 

93 
Fire-wood,  of  aleppo  pine,  in  Tunisia. 
2,  17 
of  beech,  in  Corsica,  121 
of  cork-oak,  in  Algeria,  61 

in  Tunisia,  16 
of  holm  oak,  in  Corsica,  121,  135 

in  Tunisia,  17 
sales  of,  in  Algeria,  57,  182-183 
Food,     from     chestnuts,     in     Corsica, 

122 
Forest  administration,  cost  of,  in  Al- 
geria, 58 
in  Corsica,  127-128 
in  Tunisia,  21-22 
early  difficulties  of,  4 
land  under,  in  Algeria,  161-162 
methods  of,  in  France,  i 

in  Tunisia,  18 
progress  of,  in  Algeria,  4,  7,  49^53 
in  Corsica,  112 
in  Tunisia,  3 
Forest  boundaries,  problem  of,  in  Tu- 
nisia, 18 
regulations     regarding,     in     Algeria, 
163-165 
in  Tunisia,  22 
Forest   commission,    Algeria,    appoint- 
ment of,  50 
findings  of,  52 
work  of,  4,  52-53,  109 
Forest   commission,    Tunisia,    appoint- 
ment of,  22 
Forest    destruction,     in    Algeria,     50, 
55-56 
in  Corsica,  122 
in  Tunisia,  15 
Forest     houses,     construction     of,     in 
Algeria,  89 
in  Corsica,  157 
in  Tunisia,  18,  43-45 
cost  of,  in  Algeria,  90 
furnishings  of,  in  Corsica,  157 


Forest     houses,     furnishings     of,     in 
Corsica,  125 
in  Tunisia,  45 
Forest  industries,  of  Algeria,  58,  74 
of  Corsica,  153 
of  Tunisia,  11-12 
Forest  influences,  in  Algeria,  52,  185 

See  also  Forest  meteorology 
Forest  laws,  of  Algeria,  4,  52-53,  109- 
iio.  161-208 
of  Tunisia,  22-23 

See  also  Algerian  forest  code 
Forest  management,  in  state  forests,  in 
Algeria,  165-166 
methods  of,  in  Tunisia,  2 
objects  of,  in  Algeria,  58-59 

in  Corsica,  129 
records  of,  in  Algeria,  71-72 
study  of,  in  Algeria,  87-88 
Forest  meteorology,  study  of,  in  Algeria 

87 
Forest  museum,  Algiers,  Algeria,  88 
Forest     officers,     appointment    of,     in 
Algeria,  163 
assassination  of,  in  Algeria,  103 
discipline  of,  in  Algeria,  108-109 
duties  of,  in  Algeria,  5,  53,  87,  105, 
195-203 
in  Corsica,  124-125 
in  Tunisia,  17,  20 
French,  in  Algeria,  103-104 

in  Tunisia,  19 
military  duties  of,  in  Algeria,  106 
native,  in  Algeria,  103-104,  163 
in  Tunisia,  20 

as  horsemen,  in  Algeria,  108 
number  of,  in  Algeria,  103-104 
in  Corsica,  124 
in  Tunisia,  19 
pay  of,  in  Algeria,  5,  53,  106-108 
in  Corsica,  124 
in  Tunisia,  20 
promotions  of,  in  Algeria,  108-109, 162 
reports  of,  in  Corsica,  125-126 
titles  of,  in  Algeria,  102,  106 

in  Tunisia,  19 
travel  expensesof,  in  Algeria,  5, 106-107 
in  Corsica,  125 


INDEX 


229 


Forest  ofl&cers,  travel  expenses  of,  in 
Tunisia,  20 

See  also  Forest  rangers;   Guards; 
Inspectors 
Forest    plantations,    establishment    of, 
in  Algeria,  7 
for  erosion  correction,  in  Tunisia,  40 
of  oak,  in  Algeria,  78 
Forest  preservation,  importance  of,  in 

Algeria,  4 
Forest  products,  regulations  regarding, 
in  Algeria,  74-76,  174-175,  190 
Forest  ranger,  diary  of,  quotation  from,  2 1 
Forest  regulation,  in  Tunisia,  23-24 
Forest  revenues,  in  Algeria,  53,  57-58 
in  Corsica,  127,  139,  146,  152 
in  Tunisia,  18,  22 

See  also  Timber  sales 
Forest  rights,  in  communal  forests,  in 
Algeria,  182-183 
in  private  forests,  in  Algeria,  187-188 
in  state  forests,  in  Algeria,  175-179 
redemption  of,  in  Algeria,   176-177, 
183, 187 

See    also    Free    use    privileges; 
Grazing  rights 
Forest    service,    Algeria,    criticism    of, 

50-51 
organization  of,  53,  101-104,  162-163 
prosecutions  by,  195-203 
Forest  service,  Corsica,  organization  of, 

123-124 
Forest  service,  Tunisia,  beginnings  of,  17 

organization  of ,  18-21 
Forest  soils,  study  of,  in  Algeria,  87 
Forests,     communal.     See     Communal 

forests 
Forests,  description  of,  in  Algeria,  54-55 
in  Corsica,  113-118 
in  Tunisia,  14-16 
extent  of,  in  Algeria,  54,  56-57 
in  Corsica,  115,  123 
in  Tunisia,  14,  16 
Forests,  private.     See  Private  forests 
Forests,  state.     See  State  forests 
France  —  Direction  generale  des  trav- 
aux  publics.     "Compte  rendu," 
referred  to,  221 


France,  forest  administration  in,  i,  4,  6 
See     also     Gascogne;      Landes; 
Nancy;   Pyrenees  Mts. 
Fraxinus.     See  Ash 

Free    use    privileges,    in    Algeria,    55, 
76-77,  178-179 
in  Corsica,  112 

See  also  Forest  rights 
French  conquest,  of  Algeria,  2,  46 
of  Corsica.  2,  in 
of  Tunisia,  i 
Fuel.     See  Fire-wood 

Gabes  oasis,  Tunisia,  34 
Gascogne,     France,     sand     dunes     in, 
31-32 

See  also  Landes,  France 
Gautier,  E.  F.,  on  "Sahara  Algerien," 

221 
Genoa    and    France,    treaty    between, 

regarding  Corsica,  in 
Geographical  position,  of  Algeria,  47 
of  Corsica,  113 
of  Tunisia,  10 
Goat  grazing,   amount  of,   in  Corsica, 
112,  135,  156 
damage  by,  in  Algeria,  55 
fees  for,  in  Algeria,  88-89 
in  communal  forests,  in  Algeria,  183 
in  state  forests,  in  Algeria,  178 
"Gourbis."     5ee  Huts 
Grasses,   as  sand  binders,   in  Tunisia, 
35>40 

See  also  Alfa;   Diss 
Grazing,  areas  reserved  from,  in  Tunisia, 

35 
damage  by,  in  Algeria,  55-56,  64 

in  Corsica,  8,  112,  115 

in  Tunisia,  15,  33,  35-36 
in  communal  forests,  Corsica,  156 
of  cattle,  in  Algeria,  88-89 

in  Corsica,  156 
of  goats,  in  Algeria,  88-89 

in  Corsica,  112,  156 
of  hogs,  in  Corsica,  156 

in  Tunisia,  24-25 
of  horses,  in  Corsica,  156 
of  sheep,  in  Algeria,  89 


230 


INDEX 


Grazing  of  sheep,  in  Corsica,  156 
Grazing  after  fire,   regulations  regard- 
ing, in  Algeria,  193 
in  Tunisia,  24 
Grazing  fees,  in  Algeria,  88-89 
in  Corsica,  156 
in  Tunisia,  25 
Grazing  lands,  extent  of,  in  Algeria,  89 
in  Tunisia,  16 
situation  of,  in  Algeria,  88 
in  Tunisia,  15 
Grazing  regulations,  in  Algeria,  88-89, 
174,   176-178,   183,   186-187 
in  Corsica,  112-113,  156 
in  Tunisia,  3,  22,  24-26 
Grazing  rights,  conflict  over,  in  Corsica, 

112,  157 
Grazing  trespass,  by  natives,  in  Algeria, 
50,88 
in  Corsica,  154-155 
penalties  for,  in  Algeria,  174-175,  178, 
204-205 
in  Tunisia,    22 
in  state  forests,  in  Corsica,  156 
Gsell,    Stephane,    on    "Le    climat    de 
I'Afrique    du    nord   dans   I'anti- 
quite,"  48 
Guards,  for  private  forests,  in  Algeria, 
187 
in  timber  sales  operations,  in  Algeria, 
169-170 
Guillochon,    L.,    on    "Traite    pratique 
d'horticulture  pour   le   nord   de 
I'Afrique,"  221 
Guyot,  Ch.,  on  "  Commentaire  de  la  loi 
forestiere  algerienne,"  109 

Hammam-Lif,     Tunisia,     reforestation 

at,  42-43 
Haut-Plateaux.     See  High  Plateau 
Heat     damage,     to     reforestation,     in 

Algeria,  7 
Heather,  occurrence  of,  in  Algeria,  55 

in  Corsica,  123 
Heather  roots,  for  pipes,  in  Algeria,  58 

in  Corsica,  153 
Hedges,     for     erosion     correction,     in 

Tunisia,  38,  40 


High  Plateau,  Algeria,  description  of, 

47-48 
High  Plateau,  Tunisia,  position  of,  10 
History,  early,  of  Corsica,  111-112 
Hogs,  grazing  of,  in  Corsica,  156 

in  Tunisia,  24-25 
Holly,  occurrence  of,  in  Tunisia,  14 
Holm  oak.     See  Oak,  holm 
Horsemen,  native  foresters  as,  in  Algeria, 

108 
Horses,  grazing  of,  in  Corsica,  156 
Houses.     See    Forest     houses;      Huts; 
Logging  buildings;    Ranger  sta- 
tions 
Humidity,  of  Tunisia,  12 
Huts,  building  of,  in  Tunisia,  18,  25 
Huts   near    forests,   law   regarding,    in 
Algeria,  195 

Ilex.     See  Holly 

Imperata    cylindrica,     sowing    of,     in 

Tunisia,  36 
Imprisonment  for  debt,  in  Algeria,  207 
Indemnity,    for    forest   administration, 

in  Algeria,  181 
Indian  corn.     See  Corn,  Indian 
"Indicateur    Tunisien,"    reference    to, 

10,  27,  32,  34 
Industrial  works,  in  or  near  forests,  in 

Algeria,  194-195 
Industries.     See  Forest  industries 
Influences   of   forests.     See   Forest   in- 
fluences 
Inspectors,  duties  of,  in  Algeria,  105 
Instruments  for  marking.     See  Mark- 
ing instruments 
Intensive  forestry,  in  France,  1-2 
Irrigation,  of  nurseries,  in  Tunisia,  43 
of  oases,  in  Tunisia,  33-34 

Joanne,  Paul,  on  "Geographie  du  de- 
partement  de  la  Corse,"  113 
reference  to,  115 
Joint    tenancy    forests,    administration 

of,  in  Algeria,  184 
Jonnart,  Governor  of  Algeria,  address 
of,  51-52 
reforms  of,  50-51 


INDEX 


231 


Judgments,    execution    of,    in   Algeria, 

206-207 
Juniper,    distribution    of,    in    Algeria, 
54-56 
occurrence  of,  in  Tunisia,  15 
planting  of,  in  Algeria,  79,  83,  86 
Juniperus  phcenicea.     See  Juniper 

Kefofsa   canton,   Algeria,   planting    in, 

84 
Kermes  oak.     See  Oak,  kermes 
Khroumirie  Mts.,  Tunisia,  forests  of,  14 
position  of,  10 

Labor,  in  payment  of  fines,  in  Algeria, 

207 
Laborers,     regulations     regarding,     in 

Corsica,  220 
Land  classification,  in  Tunisia,  16 
Landes,  France,  turpentining  in,  63 
Lanoir,  A.,  on  "Recherche  et  constata- 

tion  des  delits  forestieres  et  de 

chasse,"  90 
Lapasse,  L.  M.  R.  de,  reference  to,  112, 

115,  122,  123,  125,  133,  135,  139, 

145 
Laporte,  V.   P.,   on   "Exploitations  et 

gemmage    du    pin    d'alep,"    61, 

69-70 
reference  to,  57,  81 
Laurel,  occurrence  of,  in  Tunisia,  14 
Laws  of  forests.     See  Forest  laws 
Lefebvre,    Henri,  on    "Les    forets    de 

I'Algerie,"  48,  54-55,  221 
Lentisk,  occurrence  of,  in  Algeria,  55 
Ligue    du     reboisement    de    I'Algerie. 

"Manual   du    planteur  d'arbres 

en  Algerie,"  reference  to,  79 
Linden,  occurrence  of,  in  Corsica,  123 
Lodgepole  pine.     See  Pine,  lodgepole 
Logging  buildings,  in  timber  sales,  in 

Corsica,  217-218 
fire  regulations  for,  in  Algeria,  191 

See  also  Sawmills 
Logging  roads.     See  Roads 
Lookout  stations,  in  Algeria,  93 
Lumber,  from  aleppo  pine,  in  Tunisia, 

17 


Lumbering,  difficulties  of,  in  Corsica,  2 
methods  of,  in  Corsica,  150 
See  also  Cuttings 

Management    of    forests.     See    Forest 

management 
Maple,  occurrence  of,  in  Corsica,  123 
"Maquis."    5ee  Brush  lands 
Maritime  pine.     See  Pine,  maritime 
Marking,  of  cork-oak,  in  Algeria,  60 
of  timber,  in  Corsica,  112,  135-136, 

146,  148,  215-216 
of  western  yellow  pine,  in  the  United 

States,  135 
Marking   instruments,    regulations    re- 
garding, in  Algeria,  163,  170 
Marmano  forest,  Corsica,  working  plan 

for,  129-130,  132,  134,  139-140 
Matmata  Mts.,  Tunisia,  position  of,  11 
Mexican  pines,  planting  of,  in  Algeria, 

81 
Military   duties,    of   forest   officers,   in 

Algeria,  106 
Military  lands,  forest  administration  of, 

in  Algeria,  162 
Mine    timber,    from    aleppo    pine,    in 

Tunisia,  17 
Mogod  Mts.,  Tunisia,  forests  of,  15 

position  of,  10 
Museums.     See  Forest  museum 
Mustapha   Superieur,   Algeria,   nursery 

at,  83 
Myrtle,  occurrence  of,  in  Algeria,  55 

Nancy,  France,  experiments  at,  64 

Napoleon,  sales  of  cork-oak  by,  in 
Algeria,  4 

Native  population,   for  patrol  service, 
in  Algeria,  92 
treatment  of,  in  Algeria,  51-53 
unruliness  of,  in  Corsica,  8-9,  112,  125 

Nefta  oasis,  Timisia,  32,  34 

Nefzaona  oasis,  Tunisia,  34 

Nefze,  Tunisia,  forests  of,  15 

North  African  forest  research  station. 
See  Station  de  recherches  for- 
estieres du  nord  de  I'Afrique 

Nurseries,  in  Algeria,  6-7,  83-84 


232 


INDEX 


Nursery  practice,  in  Algeria,  80 

in  Tunisia,  42-43 
Nursery  stock,  in  Tunisia,  41,  43 

Oak,  coppicing  of,  in  Algeria,  65 
in  Tunisia,  24, 
rotation  for,  in  Algeria,  65 
Oak,   "afares,"   distribution  of,  in  Al- 
geria, 54-55 
Oak,  Algerian.     See  Oak,  zeen 
Oak,  cork.     See  Cork-oak 
Oak,  holm,  cuttings  in,  Tunisia,  23 
distribution  of,  in  Algeria,  54-56 
in  Corsica,  115,  118-119,  121 
in  Tunisia,  15 
fire  lines  in,  Algeria,  97 
planting  of,  in  Algeria,  78-79 

in  Tunisia,  41-42 
uses  of,  in  Corsica,  121,  135 
in  Tunisia,  17 
Oak,  kermes,  distribution  of,  in  Algeria, 

55-56 
Oak,    rowan,    occurrence,    in    Corsica, 

123 
Oak,  vert.     See  Oak,  holm 
Oak,  zeen,  cuttings  in,  Tunisia,  23-24 
distribution  of,  in  Algeria,  54-56 

in  Tunisia,  14 
fire  lines  in,  Tunisia,  30 
growth  of,  in  Tunisia,  17 
management  of,  in  Algeria,  64 

in  Tunisia,  14,  17 
planting  of,  in  Algeria,  78-79 
rotation  for,  in  Tunisia,  24 
uses  of,  in  Algeria,  57,  64 
in  Tunisia,  17 
Oases,  irrigation  of,  in  Tunisia,  33-34 
protection  of,  in  Tunisia,  2,  18,  22, 

31-35 
Officers.     See  Forest  officers 
Olea.     See  Olive 

Olive,  coppicing  of,  in  Tunisia,  24 
occurrence  of,  in  Algeria,  56 

in  Tunisia,  15 
planting  of,  in  Algeria,  79,  86 
in  Tunisia,  41-42 
Olive  plantations,  extent  of,  in  Tunisia, 
16 


Oran,    Algeria,    administrative    center, 
2,  5,  103 
fire  lines  in,  95-97 
reforestation  at,  7 
Orleansville,    Algeria,   reforestation  at, 

7,84 
Ouled-el-Nadj  forest,  Algeria,  working 

plan  for,  59,  66-68 
Over-cutting.     See  Cuttings,  excessive 

Palm,  date,  in  Tunisia,  16,  32-33 
Palms,  occurrence  of,  in  Tunisia,  15-16 
Parkinsonia  aculeata,  as  a  sand  binder, 

in  Tunisia,  36 
Pastures.     See  Grazing  lands 
Patrol     service,     organization     of,     in 

Algeria,  92 
Peeling.     See  Bark  peeling 
Penalties,  for  clearing,  in  Algeria,  185 
for  damage  to  trees,  in  Corsica,  142 
for  ploughing  of  forests,  in  Algeria, 

189 
for    timber    sales    irregularities,    in 

Algeria,  167-171,  182,  206 
for  trespass,  in  Algeria,  174-175,  178, 
188-190,  203-206 
in  Tunisia,  22 
for   violation   of   fire   regulations,   in 

Algeria,  192-194 
for  violation  of  rights,  in  Algeria,  179 
Phoenix  dachtylifera.     See  Palm,  date 
Pigs.     See  Hogs 
Pinchot,  G.,  preface  by,  v-viii 
Pine,  aleppo,  cones  of,  82 
cuttings  in,  Algeria,  63-64 

in  Tunisia,  23 
distribution  of,  in  Algeria,  54-56 

in  Tunisia,  15 
effect  on  water  level,  in  Algeria,  64 
felling  table  for,  69-70 
fire  lines  in,  Algeria,  96-97 
fire  protection  in,  Algeria,  91 

in  Tunisia,  2 
for  erosion  protection,  in  Tunisia,  2 
for  wind  protection,  in  Tunisia,  2 
management  of,  in  Algeria,  61-64 

in  Tunisia,  2,  24 
planting  of,  in  Algeria,  78-80,  82-87 


INDEX 


233 


Pine,  planting  of,  in  Tunisia,  36,  40-43 
shelterwood  system  for,  in  Algeria,  63 
turpentining  in,  Algeria,  5,  57,  61,  68 
uses  of,  in  Tunisia,  2,  17 
working  plan  for,  in  Algeria,  63,  68-71 
Pine,  Corsican,  distribution  of,  in  Cor- 
sica, 115,  118-119 
growth  of,  in  Corsica,  118-119,  137 
inaccessibility  of,  in  Corsica,  8 
management  of,  in  Corsica,  8,   129- 

130-  135-136 
resin  from,  in  Corsica,  146 
rotation  for,  in  Corsica,  137-138 
turpentining  in,  Corsica,  118,  153 
uses  of,  in  Corsica,  118 
yield  of,  in  Corsica,  138 
Pine,  lodgepole,  cones  of,  82 
Pine,     maritime,     distribution    of,     in 
Algeria,  54-56 
in  Corsica,  115,  118-119,  121 
growth  of,  in  Corsica,  119 
planting  of,  in  Tunisia,  36 
resin  from,  in  Corsica,  146,  151-152 
turpentining  in,  Corsica,  121,  151-152 
Pine,    piiion,    planting   of,    in   Algeria, 
7Q,  83 
in  Tunisia,  41-42 
Pine,  western  yellow,  marking  of,  in  the 
United  States,  135 
turpentining  in.  United  States,  119 
Pinon  pine.     See  Pine,  pinon 
Pinus  edulis,  planting  of,  in  Algeria,  81 
Pinus  halipensis.     See  Pine,  aleppo 
Pinus  laricio.     See  Pine,  Corsican 
Pinus  maritima.     See  Pine,  maritime 
Pinus    montezumae,    planting      of,    in 

x^lgeria,  81 
Pinus   patula,   planting   of,  in  Algeria, 


Planting.     See  Ball  planting;  Reforest- 
ation;    Sowing 

Platanus.     See  Sycamore 

Ploughing  of  forests,   penalties  for,  in 
Algeria,  189 

Poles,  from  aleppo  pine,  in  Tunisia,  17 
sales  of,  in  Algeria,  57 

Police  help,   for  forest  officers,   in  Al- 
geria, 197 

Poplar,  occurrence  of,  in  Algeria,  56 
in  Tunisia,  14 

Populus.     See  Aspen;   Poplar 

Prairies,  extent  of,  in  Tunisia,  16 

Private   forests,    administration   of,    in 
Algeria,  184-188 
extent  of,  in  Algeria,  56 

in  Corsica,  115 
species  found  in,  Corsica,  118 

Products.     See  Forest  products 

Promotions,  of  forest  officers,  in  Algeria, 
108-109 

Prosecutions,     by     forest     service,     in 
Algeria,  195-203 

Protection  forests,  in  Corsica,  137-138 
in  Tunisia,  15 

Protection  from  fire.     See  Fire  protec- 
tion 

Pruning,  of  plantations,  in  Algeria,  83 

Public  institution  forests,  administration 
of,  in  Algeria,  162,  180-183 

Public  land  policy,  in  Algeria,  56-57 

Pyrenees  Mts.,  France,  lumbering  in,  2 

Quercus  afares.     See  Oak,  "afares" 
Quercus  coccifera.     See  Oak,  kermes 
Quercus  ilex.     See  Oak,  holm 
Quercus  mirbeckii.     See  Oak,  zeen 
Quercus  suber.     See  Cork-oak 


Pinus  pinea.     See  Pine,  pinon 

Pinus    ponderosa.      See  Pine,   western 

yellow 
Pinus    pseudostrobus,    planting    of,    in 

Algeria,  81 
Pipes,  heather  roots  for,  in  Algeria,  58 

in  Corsica,  153 
Pistacia  lentiscus.     See  Lentisk 
Plantations.     See  Forest  plantations 


Railroad  cars,  fire  notices  in,  Tunisia, 

27 
Railroad  rights-of-way,  laws  regarding, 
in  Algeria,  91,  193-194 
in  Tunisia,  3,  22-23,  27 
planting  on,  in  Tunisia,  40 
Railroad  ties,  of  aleppo  pine,  in  Tunisia, 
17 
of  zeen  oak,  in  Algeria,  57,  64 


234 


INDEX 


Railroad  ties,  of  zeen  oak,  in  Tunisia,  7 

sales  of,  in  Algeria,  57 
Rainfall,  in  Algeria,  14,  49 

in  Tunisia,  12-14 
Rainy  season,  in  Algeria,  48-49 
in  California,  3 
in  Tunisia,  3 
Ranger  stations,  isolation  of,  in  Corsica, 
125 
reception  of  visitors  at,  in  Corsica, 
157-158 
in  Tunisia,  45 
size  of,  in  Algeria,  53 
in  Corsica,  157 
See  also  Forest  houses 
Rangers.     See  Forest  rangers 
Reclamation     of     dunes,     in    Tunisia, 

32-36,  40 
Reforestation,     cost     of,     in     Algeria, 
83-84,  86 
experiments  in,  Algeria,  80-82 
failures  of,  in  Algeria,  82,  84 
in  Corsica,  153 
in  Tunisia,  43 
government   policy,    in   Algeria,    77, 
79-80 
in  Tunisia,  41 
methods  of,  in  Algeria,  6-7,   77-79, 
82-87 
in  Corsica,  153 
in  Tunisia,  3,  42 
object  of,  in  Algeria,  83-84 

in  Tunisia,  17 
of  cleared  land,  in  Algeria,  186 
regulations     regarding,     in     Algeria, 
179-181 
See  also  Ball  planting;      Forest 
plantations;   Sowing 
Reforestation  service,   Algeria,   organi- 
zation of,  105 
Regeneration    cuttings.     See    Cuttings, 

regeneration 
Regulation  of  forests.     See  Forest  reg- 
ulation 
Reports,  of  fires,  in  Algeria,  93 

of  forest  officers,  in  Corsica,  125-126 
of  trespass  cases,  in  Algeria,  198-200, 
202-203 


Reproduction,  study  of,  in  Algeria,  87 
Research  studies,  in  Algeria,  87-88 
Resin,  from  Corsican  pine,  in  Corsica, 
146 
from  maritime  pine,  in  Corsica,  146, 
151-152 
Resin  distillation,  regulations  regarding, 

in  Algeria,  190 
Responsibility,    in    trespass    cases,    in 

Algeria,  206 
Retem,  a  desert  shrub,  in  Tunisia,  40 
Revenues.     See  Forest  revenues 
Ricinus  communis,  sowing  of,  in  Tu- 
nisia, 36 
Rights.     See  Forest  rights 
Rights-of-way.     See  Railroad  rights-of- 
way;    Road  rights-of-way 
Road  rights-of-way,  in  state  forests,  in 
Algeria,  180 
in  Corsica,  159 
Road  service,  Algeria.     See  Bridge  and 

road  service,  Algeria 
Road  system,  in  Tunisia,  16 
Roads,  as  fire  lines,  in  Tunisia,  29 
construction  of,  in  Corsica,  143,  146, 
158-159 
in  Tunisia,  18 
in  private  forests,  in  Algeria,  187 
in  state  forests,  in  Algeria,  178 
in  timber  sales  operations,  in  Algeria, 
166 
in  Corsica,  9,  217 
location  of,  in  Corsica,  158 
Roads  department,  Tunisia,  work  of,  38 
Rodent  damage,  in  x\lgeria,  6,  78,  82,  87 
Roots.     See  Heather  roots 
Rotation,  determination  of,  in  Corsica,  8 
for  cork-oak,  in  Tunisia,  24 
for  Corsican  pine,  in  Corsica,  137-138 
for  holm  oak,  in  Algeria,  65 
for  zeen  oak,  in  Tunisia,  24 
Rowan  oak.     See  Oak,  rowan 

Sahara  Atlas,  Algeria,  description  of,  48 
Sahara  region,  Algeria,  description  of,  48 
Sahara  region,  Tunisia,  rainfall  in,  13 
Sales  of  timber.     See  Timber  sales 
Salix.     See  Willow 


INDEX 


^35 


Salt  lakes,  situation  of,  in  Algeria,  48 
Sample    plots,    in    Valdoniello    forest, 

Corsica,  135 
Sand  binders,  grasses  as,  in  Tunisia,  35 

shrubs  as,  in  Tunisia,  35-36 
Sand  dunes,  damage  from,  in  Tunisia,  ^5 
extent  of,  in  Tunisia,  16 
movement  of,  in  Gascogne,  31-32 

in  Tunisia,  31-32 
protection  from,  in  Tunisia,  3,  18,  23, 

31 
reclamation  of,  in  Tunisia,  32-36,  40 
situation  of,  in  Tunisia,  15 
Sand   fences,   construction    of,  in   Tu- 
nisia, 34-35 
Sawmills,     regulations     regarding,     in 

Corsica,  159-160 
Scaling,  in  timber  sales  operations,  in 

Corsica,  145 
Scipio,   Lucius   Cornelius,  Corsican  in- 
vasion by,  III 
Seasons.     See  Dry  season;  Rainy  season 
Securities  required,  in  timber  sales,  in 

Algeria,  168-169 
Seed  beds,  in  nursery  practice,  in  Tu- 
nisia, 43 
Seed-spot  method,  in  Algeria,  6-7,  78, 
82,  84,  86 
in  Tunisia,  3,  41-43 
Seedlings,  planting  of,  in  Algeria,  83-84 
in  Tunisia,  42 
protection  of,  in  Algeria,  7,  82 
in  Tunisia,  42 
Seeds,  collection  of,  in  Corsica,  153 
Seized    goods,    sales    of,    in    Algeria, 

197-198 
Seizures,  in  trespass  cases,  in  Algeria, 

196-197,  205 
Selection  system,  adoption  of,  in  Cor- 
sica, 112,  132-133,  155 
advantages  of,  in  Corsica,  8,  132 
description  of,  in  Corsica,  133-135 
in  cork-oak,  in  Algeria,  59-60 
in  Tunisia,  24 
Seneca,  Lucius  Annaeus,  reference  to, 

112 
Servonnet,  on  "Le  Golfe  de  Gabes  en 


Settlers,  fire  protection  by,  in  Algeria, 
192 
in  Tunisia,  3 
forest  work  by,  in  Tunisia,  18 

Sec  also  Agricultural  settlement 
Sheep  grazing,  amount  of,  in  Corsica, 
156 
areas  for,  in  Algeria,  89 
in  communal  forests,  in  Algeria,  183 
in  state  forests,  in  Algeria,  178 
Shelterwood    system,    failures    of,    in 
Corsica,  8,  130,  155 
in  aleppo  pine,  in  Algeria,  63 
in  Corsican  pine,  in  Corsica,  129-130 
in  zeen  oak  in  Tunisia,  24 
Shrubs,   as   sand   binders,   in   Tunisia, 
35-36,  40 
as  undergrowth,  in  Algeria,  55 
in  Corsica,  123 
in  Tunisia,  14 
Sidi  Bagdad  canton,  Algeria,  planting 

in,  84 
Silvicultural  systems,  in  Tunisia,  24 

See    also    Coppicing;    Selection 
system;      Shelterwood  system 
"Sirocco"  winds,  in  Algeria,  49 
Soils,  of  Tunisia,  14-15 

See  also  Forest  soils 
Sowing,  in  Bon  Rahma  forest,  Algeria,  86 
methods  of,  in  Algeria,  78,  81,  86 
in  Corsica,  153 
in  Tunisia,  42-43 
time  of,  in  Algeria,  6,  77,  79,  81-82 
inTum'sia,  3,  42 

See  also  Seed-spot  method 
Spacing,    in    planting    operations,    in 

Tunisia,  42 
Springs,  for  irrigating  oases,  in  Tunisia, 
34 
improvement  of,  in  Tunisia,  3,  23 
protection  of,  in  Tunisia,  15,  40 
Sprouting,  of  cork-oak,  in  Algeria,  61 
State    forests,    administration    of,    in 
Algeria,  161-180 
in  Tunisia,  3,  23 
extent  of,  in  Algeria,  56 

in  Corsica,  115 
grazing  in,  Corsica,  156 


236 


INDEX 


State  forests,  location  of,  in  Corsica,  116 
roads  through,  in  Corsica,  159 
species  found  in,  Corsica,  118 
table  of,  in  Corsica,  209-213 
Station    de    recherches    forestieres    du 
nord  de  I'Afrique,  Algeria,  87-88 
"Bulletin,"  reference  to,  87 
Stipa  tenacissima.     Sec  Alfa 
Stock  branding.     See  Branding  stock 
Stump    extraction,    for    turpentine,    in 

Corsica,  153 
Stumpage    prices,     estimation    of,    in 

Corsica,  147,  151 
Swamp  drainage,  in  Corsica,  156 
Sycamore,  occiu-rence  of,  in  Corsica,  123 

Takrouina     forest,     Algeria,     working 

plan  for,  68 
Tamarind,   occurrence   of,   in   Tunisia, 

14 
Tamarindus  indica.     See  Tamarind 
Tamarisk,  for  hedges,  in  Tunisia,  38,  40 
planting  of,  in  Algeria,  79 
in  Tunisia,  35-36,  40 
Tamarix.     See  Tamarisk 
Tan  bark,  cost  of,  in  Tunisia,  17 

sales  of,  in  Algeria,  57-58 
Tannin,  from  chestnut,  in  Corsica,  122 
from  cork-oak,  in  Algeria,  61,  67 

in  Tunisia,  16 
from  holm  oak,  in  Corsica,  121 
"Tapping  alive,"  in  Algeria,  63,  68 

in  Corsica,  148,  151,  218-220 
"Tapping  to  death,"  in  Algeria,  63,  68 

in  Corsica,  148,  218 
Tar  distillation,  regulations  regarding, 

in  Algeria,  190 
Taxation,  areas  exempt  from,  in  Algeria, 

188 
Telegraph  poles.     See  Poles 
Tell  Atlas,  Algeria,  description  of,  47 
Temperature,  of  Algeria,  49 

of  Tunisia,  11-12 
Thinnings,  in  aleppo  pine,  in  Algeria, 
63-64 
in  cedar,  in  Algeria,  64-65 
in  Corsican  pine,  in  Corsica,  135 
in  selection  forests,  in  Corsica,  8 


Thuya,  distribution  of,  in  Algeria,  54-56 
fire  lines  in,  Algeria,  96-97 
occurrence  of,  in  Tunisia,  15 
planting  of,  in  Algeria,  79,  86 
in  Tunisia,  41-42 
Ties.     See  Railroad  ties 
Tilia.     See  Linden 

Timber  sales,  by  Napoleon,  in  Algeria,  4 
comparison  between,  in  Corsica  and 

the  U.  S.,  8-9 
contract  conditions,  in  Corsica,  141- 

145,  217 
data   furnished   bidders,   in   Corsica, 

149-150 
in     communal     forests,   in     Algeria, 
181-182 
in  Corsica,  127 
in  cork-oak,  in  Algeria,  4,  50,  72-73 
in  joint  tenancy  forests,  in  Algeria, 

184 
in  state  forests,  in  Algeria,  166-174 
in  Corsica,  127,  138 
in  France,  6 
in  zeen  oak,  in  Tunisia,  14,  17 
large,  examples  of,  in  Corsica,  145-148 
necessity  for,  in  Corsica,  9,  140-141, 

145 
persons   excluded   from,    in   Algeria, 

167,  182 
purchasers'  risks,  in  Corsica,  144,  148, 

217,  220 
securities  required,  in  Algeria,   168- 

169 
special  rules  for,  in  Corsica,  149 
verifications  of,  in  Algeria,  173-174 
See  also  Asco  timber  sale,  Corsica 
Timber  sales  guards.     See  Guards 
Timber  sales  irregularities,  penalties  for, 

in  Algeria,  169-171,  182,  206 
Topography,  of  Algeria,  47 
of  Corsica,  113 
of  Tunisia,  lo-ii 
Tozeur  oasis,  Tunisia,  32,  34 
Trails,  as  fire  lines,  in  Tunisia,  29 
construction  of,  in  Corsica,  158-159 

in  Tunisia,  18 
cost  of,  in  Corsica,  143,  158 
location  of,  in  Corsica,  158 


INDEX 


237 


Transportation   regulations,   in   timber 

sales,  in  Algeria,  172 
Travel  expenses,  for  forest  officers,  in 
Algeria,  5,  106-107 
in  Corsica,  125 
in  Tunisia,  20 
Treaty    between    Genoa    and    France, 

regarding  Corsica,  iii 
Trespass  cases,  comparison  between,  in 
Corsica  and  the  U.  S.,  9 
frequency  of,  in  Algeria,  90 

in  Corsica,  154 
method  of  recording,  in  Algeria,  71-72 
penalties    for,    in    Algeria,    188-190, 

203-206 
regulations  regarding,  in  Algeria,  90, 

172,  196-203 
trials  of,  in  Algeria,  200-201,  203 
See  also  Grazing  trespass 
Tubes,  bamboo,  in  nursery  practice,  in 

Tunisia,  42-43 
Tunis,  Tunisia,   administrative  center 

2,  19 
Tunisia,  chapter  on,  10-45 

conclusions  and  summary,  2-4 

See  also  specific  subjects  in  their 
alphabetical  positions 
Tunisia  —  Direction  de  I'agriculture  et 
du  commerce  et  de  la  colonisa- 
tion.    "Bulletins,"    referred   to, 
221 
Tunisia  —  Direction  des  forets.  "  Notice 
sur   les   forets   de   la   Tunisie," 
referred  to,  221 
Tunnels,  in  timber  sales  operations,  in 

Algeria,  166 
Turpentine,  from  pine  stumps,  in  Cor- 
sica, 153 
Turpentine   industry,   problems   of,   in 

Algeria,  62 
Turpentining,  in  aleppo  pine,  in  Algeria, 
5,57,61,68 
in  Corsican  pine,  in  Corsica,  118,  153 
in   maritime   pine,   in   Corsica,    121, 

151-152 
in  western  yellow  pine,  in  the  U.  S., 

119 
methods  of,  in  Algeria,  62 


Turpentining,  methods  of,  in  Corsica, 
148-149,  152 
regulations    regarding,     in     Corsica, 
218-220 

Ulmus.     See  Elm 

Undergrowth,  density  of,  in  Algeria,  55 
in  Tunisia,  27 
shrubs  as,  in  Algeria,  55 
in  Corsica,  123 
in  Tunisia,  14 
United  States,  timber  sales  in,  8-9 

trespass  cases  in,  9 
United  States  timber  culture  law,  ref- 
erence to,  122 

Valdoniello  forest,  Corsica,  cuttings  in, 

135 
sample  plots  in,  135 
working  plan  for,  128,  130,  133,  138 
Vert  oak.     See  Oak,  holm 
Vineyards,  in  Tunisia,  15-16 
Visitors,  reception  of,  at  ranger  stations, 
in  Corsica,  157-158 
in  Tunisia,  45 
Vizzavona     forest,     Corsica,     working 

plan  for,  132 
Volume    table,    in    Asco    timber    sale, 
Corsica,  216 

Wahl,  Maurice,  on  "L'Algerie,"  221 
War  duties.     Sec  Military  duties 
Water  level,  effect  of  aleppo  pine  on, 

in  Algeria,  64 
Water  supply,  protection  of ,  m  Tunisia ,  1 5 

See  also  Springs 
Water  surface,  of  Tunisia,  16 
Waters    and    forests    service,    Algeria. 

See  Forest  service,  Algeria 
Western  yellow  pine.     See  Pine,  western 

yellow 
Wet  season.     See  Rainy  season 
White,  Arthur,  on  "  Le  developement  de 

I'Afrique,"  221 
Willow,  occvirrence  of,  in  Tunisia,  14 
Windfalls,  included  in  sales,  in  Corsica, 

141 
thefts  of,  in  Algeria,  204 


238 


INDEX 


Winds,  direction  of,  in  Algeria,  48-49 
in  Tunisia,  11 
protection  from,  in  Tunisia,  2,  11 
Wood,  sales  of,  in  Algeria,  57-58 

in  Corsica,  216 
Working  plan,  for  Aitone  forest,  Corsica, 
132-134,  137-138 
for  aleppo  pine,  in  Algeria,  63,  68-71 
for  Bavella  forest,  Corsica,  128-129, 

137 
for  cork-oak,  in  Algeria,  66-68 
for  Marmano  forest,  Corsica,  129-130, 

132,  134,  139-140 
for  Valdoniello  forest,  Corsica,   128, 

130,  ^33,  138 
for  Vizzavona  forest,  Corsica,  132 
Working   plans,   examples  of  early,  in 

Corsica,  128-129 


Working  plans,  forests  under,  in  Corsica, 
209-213 
lack  of,  in  Algeria,  66 
in  Tunisia,  23 

Yield,  estimation  of,  in  Corsica,  8,  140 
in  cork-oak,  in  Algeria,  5-6,  67 
in  Corsican  pine,  in  Corsica,  138 
of  coppice,  in  New  England,  6 
table  showing,  in  Corsica,  140 

Zaghouan,    Tunisia,    reforestation    at, 

42-43 
Zeen  oak.     See  Oak,  zeen 
Zon,  Raphael,  reference  to,  15 
Zonza  forest,  Corsica,  turpentine  opera- 
tions in,  151-152 


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Subjects  Related  to  this  Volume 

For  convenience  a  list  of  the  Wiley  Special  Subject  Catalogues, 
envelope  size,  has  been  printed.  These  are  arranged  in  groups 
— each  catalogue  having  a  key  symbol.  (See  Special  Subject 
List  Below).  To  obtain  any  of  these  catalogues,  send  a 
postal  using  the  key  symbols  of  the  Catalogues  desired. 


List  of  Wiley  Special  Subject  Catalogues 

1 — Agriculture.     Animal  Husbandry.     Dairying.     Industrial 
Canning  and  Preserving. 

2 — Architecture.       Building.       Masonry. 

3 — Business  Administration  and  Management.     Law. 

Industrial  Processes :   Canning  and  Preserving;     Oil  and  Gas 
Production;   Paint;   Printing;  Sugar  Manufacture;  Textile. 

CHEMISTRY 

4a  General;  Analytical,  Qualitative  and  Quantitative;  Inorganic; 

Organic. 
4b  Electro-  and  Physical;  Food  and  Water;   Industrial;   Medical 

and  Pharmaceutical;  Sugar. 

CIVIL  ENGINEERING 

5a  Unclassified  and  Structural  Engineering. 

5b  Materials  and  Mechanics  of  Construction,  including;  Cement 
and  Concrete;  Excavation  and  Earthwork;  Foundations; 
Masonry. 

5c   Railroads;  Surveying. 

5d  Dams;  Hydraulic  Engineering;  Pumping  and  Hydraulics;  Irri- 
gation Engineering;  River  and  Harbor  Engineering;  Water 
Supply. 

(Over) 


CIVIL  ENGINEERING— t"o«/;wMpJ 
5e    Highways;     Municipal     Engineering;     Sanitary     Engineering; 
Water    Supply.      Forestry.      Horticulture,     Botany     and 
Landscape  Gardening. 


6 — Design.  Decoration.  Drawing:  General;  Descriptive 
Geometry;  Kinematics;  Mechanical. 

ELECTRICAL  ENGINEERING— PHYSICS 

7 — General  and  Unclassified;  Batteries;  Central  Station  Practice; 
Distribution  and  Transmission;  Dynamo-Electro  Machinery; 
Electro-Chemistry  and  Metallurgy;  Measuring  Instruments 
and  Miscellaneous  Apparatus. 


8 — Astronomy.      Meteorology.      Explosives.       Marine    and 
Naval  Engineering.     Military.     Miscellaneous  Books. 

MATHEMATICS 
9 — General;    Algebra;    Analytic   and    Plane    (Jeometry;    Calculus; 
Trigonometry;  Vector  x\nalysis. 

MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING 
10a  General  and  Unclassified;  Foundry  Practice;  Shop  Practice. 
10b  Gas  Power  and    Internal   Combustion   Engines;   Heating  and 

Ventilation;  Refrigeration. 
?0c   Machine  Design  and  Mechanism;  Power  Transmission;  Steam 

Power  and  Power  Plants;  Thermodynamics  and  Heat  Power. 
1 1 — Mechanics.  

12 — Medicine.  Pharmacy.  Medical  and  Pharmaceutical  Chem- 
istry.   Sanitary   Science   and  Engineering.      Bacteriology   and 

Biologv. 

MINING  ENGINEERING 

13 — General;  Assaying;  Excavation,  Earthwork,  Tunneling,  Etc.; 
Explosives;  Geology;  Metallurgy;  Mineralogy;  Prospecting, 
Ventilation. 


